Oak-Hickory Forests-I

Forest Range Types of Eastern North America

The fundamental and practical distinction between coniferous and deciduous forests is useful (and was used herein), but precise, non-arbitrary "lines" are impossible when presenting and discussing forest range types in the eastern half of the continent. This is especially the case when climax or potential natural vegetation is used as the basis for forest types (ie. when cover types, or the more specific management cover types, are discussed as being more or less synonymous with permanent forest types). As discussed in detail below, the epic work of Lucy Braun (1950) is still the definitive basis for the ecological discussion and classification of those North American forests which extend from the Atlantic Coast to slightly beyond the Missouri and Mississippi River drainages. Braun (1950) included all the coniferous forests (forest types, regions, etc.)-- the generic "southeastern pine region"--as part of her one Deciduous Forest Formation.  The forest range types included in the following section include coniferous, deciduous, and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. This is confusing but unavoidable given the nature of the vegetation and the standard understanding (the Braun interpretation) of ecological relations and classification of  this forest vegetation. Most of the southeastern pine types presented are management cover types maintained silviculturally as more economically valuable coniferous forests rather than as the climax mixed hardwood-pine forest types. In other words, efforts were made to fit the Society of American Foresters (1980) cover types with the climax types of Braun (1950) and the potential natural vegetation units of Kuchler (1966).       The major forest communities or forest zones of eastern North America are broad or wide in their spatial patterns unlike the narrow zonation characteristic of the forests of western North America. The “young” mountains of the western part of the continent are taller (in fact, still getting taller) and as a result have more elevation-based zonation of vegetation than do the geologically older and more eroded (lower) eastern mountains such as the Applachians or Ozarks. So too, are the soils of the Atlantic Coast more zonal (ie. major soil units are larger or broader in spational dimension like those of the vast continental interior whereas soils of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Slope ranges are more of the intrazonal spatial scale. See for illustration the national soil map of dominant soil orders and suborders (Soil Survey Staff, 1998).  Vankat (1979, p. 137) wrote that relief within the eastern deciduous forest “is quite variable” yet earlier Vankat (1979, p. 41) had also correctly noted that “low hills “ were characteristic of much of this deciduous forest region. Again, contrast this with the extreme physiography of the Rockys or Sierra Nevada-Cascade Ranges.

The classic and still-definitive work on forests of eastern North America (approximately east of the 98th meridian) is the life’s work of Dr. Lucy Barun (1950). Braun interpreted this entire vegetation as one great forest formation existing as a mosaic of forest regions which in turn were made up of community units that she labeled variously as belts, areas, districts, sections, divisions, etc.     “The Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America is a complex vegetation unit most conspicuously characterized by the prevalence of the deciduous habit of most of its woody constituents. This gives to it a certain uniformity of phsiognomy,      with alternating summer green and winter leafless aspects. Evergreen species, both broad-leaved and needle-leaved, occur in the arboreal and shrub layers, patticularly in seral stages  and in marginal and transitional areas. They are not, however,      entirely lacking even in some centrally loocated climax communities” (Braun, 1950, p. 31). “The Deciduous Forest Formation is made up of a number of climax associations differing from one another in floristic compositon, in physiogonomy, and in genesis or historical origin. While the delimitation of associations may be made on a basis of dominant species, and it is from these that the climax is named, dominants alone fo not suffice for the recognition of these units. … Although the delimitation in space of an association is difficult, if not impossible, it is entirely possible to recognize and to map forest regions which are characterized by the prevalence of specific climax types, or by mosaics of types. These regions are natural entities, generally with      readily observable natural boundaries based on vegetational features. … Forest regions must not be confused with climax associations. Even though a region is named for the climax association normally developing within it, it should not be      assumed that the region is coextensive with the area where that climax can develop. Each of the several climaxes, although characterizing a specific region, nevertheless occurs in other regions.” (Braun, 1950, p. 33-34). Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) listed nine forest regions making up the Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America:                 1. Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region,                 2. Western Mesophytic Forest Region,                 3. Oak-Hickory Forest Region,                 4. Oak-Chestnut Forest Region,                 5. Oak Pine Forest Region,                 6. Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region,                 7. Beech-Maple Forest Region,                 8. Maple-Basswood Forest Region, and                 9. Eastern Hemlock-Eastern White Pine-Northern Hardwoods Region.  Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) interpreted these same combinations of species as forest communities at the scale (both spatial, mostly, and, also, temporal) of climax association  from which, as quoted immediately above, Braun derived the names of forest regions. Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) distinguished between the association-abstract and the association-concrete, a distinction discussed in the review of the derivation of vegetation cover type from the concept of plant association. The Braun association is the association of F.E. Clements. Indeed the entire ecological paradigm on which Braun (1950, ps. 10-15) based her monographic treatment of the North American Deciduous Formation is Clementisan except allowance for and inclusion of edaphic and physiographic climaxes of Cowles, Tansley, etc.  Vankat (1979, ps. 137-150) and Delcourt and Delcourt in Barbour and Billings (2000, ps. 365-378) described eastern deciduous forest vegetation under the Braun (1950) associations of the Clementsian model. It is important to bear in mind that the Braun associations can occur in more than the one forest region bearing the name of the association (eg. the Oak-Pine Association commonly occurs and the Maple-Basswood Association infrequently occurs in parts of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region). Several of the species combinations that delineate deciduous forest regions and associations were also used as forest cover types by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) as for example White Pine-Hemlock (SAF 22), White Pine-Northern Red Oak-Red Maple (SAF 20), Sugar Maple-Basswood (SAF 26), and Beech-Sugar Maple (SAF 60). The Society of American Foresters emphasized that it’s forest cover types were “based on existing tree cover” (… forest as they are today…”) and that some types may be climax while others are “transitory” (ie. seral stages leading to another climax). Braun (1950, p. xiii) specified: “Some of the communities for which composition is given are readily referable to ‘forest cover types’ as defined by the Society of American Foresters”. She then added, “However, an attempt to classsify all communities as to ‘cover types’ would be artificial” and often impossible. Undoubtedly this was due to the differences in classification by Braun’s climax basis (with seral communities clearly specified) versus the existing or present-day forest communities basis of the SAF.  The Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994, p. xi) also specified the criterion of “existing vegetation” and that some rangeland cover types are climax and others are seral. The author of this collection of photographs and descriptions repeatedly reminded readers of this situation, but specified that most of the rangeland and forest cover types included herein were climax vegetation. That criterion exist for forest range types of the Eastern Deciduous forest Formation with most photographs being of either old-growth or second-growth forest with climax species composition as described in the classic literature such as Braun (1950) or Shelford (1963, ps. 17-119). The nine forest regions of Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) were retained with little modification as series in the fairly comprehensive system of vegetation (primarily, climax; secondly, disclimax or subclimax) used in A Classification of North American Biotic Communities by Brown et al. (1998). Their organization of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Formation was: Oak-Hickory Series, Oak-Chestnut series, Beech-Maple Series, Oak-Pine Series, Maple-Basswood Series, and Hemlock-White Pine-Mixed Hardwood Series within the Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community and Mixed Mesophytic Series and Pine Series within the Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community. The Brown et al. (1998) series were included below following SAF and/or SRM cover type designations.

Historical Footnote and Editorial

The consistent and persistent use of the eastern deciduous forest associations of Braun (1950) by the foremost contemporary ecologists provides the beginning student of Ecology with a textbook example of the necessity of learning the fundamental concepts— and the language(s) thereof —that are the foundation of his selected field of Biology. No ecological monograph, including those of John E. Weaver or Victor E. Shelford, ever used Clementsian concepts and terminology any more consistently or with any more practical application than did Braun (1950). All three of these (and there were others besides these) patriarchal ecologists of North American vegetation left future generations with not only the seminal but also the definitive treatises of the communities to which they devoted their professional lives. Their like, their genre of comprehensive, panaramic, descriptive, first-hand accounts of vegetation on this grand scale, will not likely appear again before icicles hang in Hell. The contemporary research world is hung up on numbers, even generated or simulated (vs. real data) numbers often for numbers-sake alone, and especially numbers of publications. This has gone beyond Lord Kelvin’s admonition to “express it in numbers”,  (indeed Kelvin used actual numbers derived from physical experiments) to the point that quantity is everything and quality (always subsidary to quantity) itself is based on numbers. Not only is there little room for Descriptive Ecology, but there is hardly more for descriptive analysis of experiments and observations because the gold-standard of refereed publications has descended, has been perverted, to the quantitative entity of LPU (Lowest Publishable Unit). A natural length paper based on objectives of the study is split into as many LPUs as possible to extend the author’s bibliography. This procedure does not allow enough results to be included in any one paper to allow a discussion of  findings from a comprehensive perspective. Besides the experimental procedure (complete with lots of numbers and split-nine-ways-to-Sunday replications) is the most important part according to anonymous peer-reviewers.   In an institutional culture where “Publish or Perish” has become prostituted to a realm of pot-boiler papers written from predictable-outcome, piss-ant projects the next generation of Brauns, Weavers, Shelfords are “dead meat” if they devote (ie. sacrifice) their careers to document for eternity the kind of knowledge their “takes a lifetime “ research produced. Such incredible work is left to not only the fully vested or tenured but the tenured full professor of independent financial means at career’s end (and then there is not enough time left to do the work). A key factor in the creative genius and amazing productivity of Frederic E.Clements was that he was able to spend most of his career working for the rich Carnegie Foundation which freed him from the routine of classroom teaching and daily chores of academia thereby enabling him the luxury of a self-proclaimed “escaped professor” (Brewer, 1988, p. 503).  Alternatively, the most lasting and useful research is the province of the academic martyr to whom pursuit of knowledge or satisfaction of curiosity are of higher utility than organizational rank and its financial renumeration.  Thus the Ecology student is left with the classical works of those “giants in the earth” who reigned when knowledge was the domain of a more leisurely, honest, genteel, and collegial time and culture. The scholar of biblical texts cannot read just the several English translations of the Holy Bible. He must also understand the native tongues of Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek in which Holy Writ was written. So too with the “scripture” of Ecology. And the language of vegetation, at least North American vegetation, is Clementsian. The serious student of vegetation must be knowledgable and conversant in this language given that so much of the all-encompassing vegetation literature was written predominately from the view of Clementsian Ecology (and vocabulary). These original, monographic works remain the basis, however distant, of current investigations or even classifications of vegetation. The basic ecological concepts in such natural resource fields as Range Management and Forestry remain Clementsian at root (eg. the Clementsian association is the basis of the forest and range cover types as used in North America). Any who would refuse to familarize themselves with Clementsian Ecology because there are exceptions to and alternative models for some of its general, long temporal-large spatial scales traverse the terrain of ecological literature half blind. In their zeal to reform the basic vegetation paradigm to include, justifiably, the exceptions they end up “throwing the baby out with the bath water”.

1. Virgin shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest— One of the few remnants of old growth forest left in Texas is this shortleaf pine-white oak-chinkapin oak (Q. muhlenbergii)-shellbark hickory (Carya ovata)-pignut hickory (C. cordiformis) community seen here. There are several layers of vegetation including a second tree layer of young climax tree species and species like winged elm (Ulmus alata) and boisd'arc or Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) and a shrub layer of flowering dogwood, Arkansas traveler or pepperwood (Ampelopsisarborea), blackberry, gooseberry, and various wild grape vines. The prominent herb layer(s) include little bluestem, rosette panic grasses (Panicum spp.), slender- or longleaf wood oats, and scattered clumps of the native bamboo, giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Lennox Woods (donated by Kirby Lumber Company to The Nature Conservancy), Red River County, Texas. May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Ecosystem).FRES No.14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). Classic example of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al, 2004).

2. Old growth white oak-shellbark hickory-shortleaf pine community— A bottomland site but on this sandy soil species composition is more typical of upland and mesic sites. Composite shot of the climatic or regional climax of northern portions of Texas Pineywoods. Same species composition as in previous slide. Lennox Woods, The Nature Conservancy, Red River County, Texas. May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al, 2004).

3. Climax bottomland White Oak-Shagbark Hickory-Shortleaf Pine Forest- The more mesic bottomlands of this forest cover type are of the oak-hickory affiliation with very little pine present. This massive old-growth white oak stands as evidence of what even the more western reaches of the Pineywoods can produce. The hat between the flutes of the trunk is a standard 4 inch brim-size so it is about a foot end-to-end. The oak is over 1 yard Diameter Breast Height. Countless thousands of white oaks such as this were logged from Texas’ virgin forests for railroad ties and building timbers to help build a young nation, but many, probably most in many forests were felled for cooperage (mostly to make staves for whiskey barrels). Such is the dual nature of man. The grass understory is made up of scattered, depauperate shoots of the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea), longleaf uniola (Uniola sessiliflora= Chasmanthium sessiliflorum) along with Canada wildrye and various species of Panicum and Paspalum. It is meaningful from a range perspective how much herbaceous and woody understory there is in this old-growth forest, and how much feed there will be if stocking rates are kept very low or super-conservative. The Nature Conservancy Lennox Woods, Red River County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May.

4. Hemongous hickory- A huge white hickory (Carya tomentosa) lived long and healthy in an oak-hickory forest on a bluff above a small stream in the Ozark Plateau. Redbud (Cercis canadensis) and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) had just begun to bloom but these shrubs of mature statue served to show size of this magnificant specimen. Above Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April: could there be any doubt that this was the vernal aspect?

5. Pignut, bitternut, or (sometimes) white hickory (Carya cordiformis)- Identification of the hickory species besides the obvious ones like pecan or shagbark and black hickories is often a frustrating undertaking. This is especially the case in forests having several Carya species growing in close proximity such that leaves and nuts of the species are intermixed and where the trees are so large that identification relies heavily on bark. The immense specimen seen here was a good example of the bark of the pignut or bitternut hickory. This species grows on a variety of habitats including a diversity of soils. As such, pignut hickory grows to different sizes and with various trunk and crown shapes. It frequently attains it's greatest size on moist yet well-drained soils on upslope drainages such as the one seen here growing high on a bluff above a stream in the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozarks. Along Lost Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

6. Leaves and hickory nuts of pignut or bitternut hickory, one of the more common Carya species in the Ozark Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

7. Reaching to the sky- Another large hickory presented to represent its species was this specimen of shagbark or shellbark hickory (Carya ovata). Most of the neighboring trees were white oak, but shortleaf pine was also well-represnted throughout this forest. A hearty specimen of poison oak (Rhus toxicodendron= Toxicodendron radicans= Rhus radicans) had claimed the trunk of this large shellbark for its own. Lennox Woods, Red River County, Texas. May.

8. A good foundation- Trunk of the large shagbark hickory shown in the preceding photograph. Note the characteristic bark which in large trees often forms canoe-sized sheets or shelves projecting conspicouosly from the large trunk. A large specimen of poison oak was growing up the right side of this trunk. Lennox Woods, Red River County, Texas. May.

The four slides presented immediately below were taken of an unusually mesic form of climax oak-hickory forest in the Boston Mountains section of the Ozark Plateau. The photographs were in the location specifically identified by Braun (Braun, 1950, ps. 170-172) as being an outlier or island of the Mixed Mesophytic Association (Braun, 1950, p.11) of the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association but found in the Western Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association (Braun, 1950, p. 35). Braun (1950, p. 170-172) concluded that this specific forest vegetation was typical of that in the Cumberland and Allegheny Plateaus. Braun's conclusions were based on species composition, specifically of key species like beech (Table 33, p. 172) and local dominance into the climax by species like sweetgum. Beech was largely extirpated from this locale, but the combination of species mentioned by Braun including Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus), American or white elm (Ulmus americana), and chinquapin oak (Quercus muhlenbergii) along with the typical sassafras, persimmon, and flowering dogwood as shrubs or understorey trees distinguished this as a unique community. Ecologically significant by their absence were post and blackjack oaks, and even black oak (Q. velutina), this latter the dominant species and key species over much of the Ozark Plateau. Commonness of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), classified as Very Intolerant, along with Intolerant species like sweetgum and Kentucky coffeetree were also indicators of a "choice blend" of the oak-hickory "brand". This was further verified by presence of northern red oak (Q. borealis= Q. rubra), southern red oak (Q. falcata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), and bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), one of the more tolerant hickories Deemed by the author of substantial indicator value was commonness of wild hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens), an understorey shrub limited to the most moist habitats such as seeps, springs, and north slopes. Relative abundance of this species and of hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) along with the more typical poison oak and ivy, Virginia creeper, and pawpaw (yet nearly complete absence of herbaceous species) indicated an understorey that also varied from the typical Ozark Mountains oak-hickory forest. The conclusion reached by Braun (1950, p. 172) was :"These isolated mixed mesophytic communities are related to past forest migrations. Their preservation here, in a region whose physiographic history is similar to that of the Cumberland Plateau, is significant." This was an example of the point made by Braun (1950, p. 34) that each of the climax associations which characterize a specific forest region also occur in other forest regions characterized by, and thus named after, another climax forest association. This illustrated the dual nature of a Clementsian association: it was both an abstraction (abstract concept) and an actual climax plant community depending on both 1) the context in which association was applied and 2) the precise spatial and temporal location of the vegetation. The specific forest vegetation shown in this three-slide series illustrated a forest outlier, "an area of forest separated from the main occurrence of its type generally because of some local variation in ecological conditions or past migration of vegetation associated with major climatic changes" (Helms, 1998). Braun (1950, p. 172) specified that this forest outlier was largely a product of "past forest migrations". The following three photographs were taken on the upper terraces of the Mulberry River south of the community of Cass in Franklin County, Arkansas on a moderately steep northeast slope. July. The closest reference for native plant communities in Arkansas is that of neighboring Missouri (two counties north of the vegetation shown in this series) by Nelson (1987) who named and described forest natural communities as to either upland or bottomland forests. These two general groups were then divided on edaphic features such as depth, soil moisture and parent material. From this base the white oak-red oak-hickory forest introduced below would be either Mesic Forest (Nelson, 1987, p. 21) or Mesic Sandstone Forest based on the geologic aspect of the sandstone-capped Boston Mountains and absence of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) found on Dry-Mesic Forest (Nelson, 1987, ps. 37-38. According to the elaborate (and confusing, to this author) Natural Vegetation Classification System of Arkansas for GAP Analysis Project the Natural Terrestrial Cover of this forest was:1.B.3.a.6 Quercus alba-Carya tomentosa-C. ovata listed under Temperate Lowland and Submontane Broad-leaved Cold-Deciduous Forest. Ahh, right. The U.S. Forest Service Forest Type and Management Type Code designation was White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory and 53 for Type Name and Code, respectively. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). Society of American Foresters general designation was SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak) (Eyre, 1980), BUT this was much less accurate than the SAF 1954 designation of White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory. The SAF (Eyre, 1980, p. 42) explained that "as hickories seldom make up more than 10 percent of the stocking, they have been dropped from the type name and black oak, a more common component, has been added". This was a true statement if applied at a landscape or regional scale (ie. across the Ozark Mountains where this type is climax according to the SAF and where black oak is a common dominant), but it most certainly is not a true statement if applied at the stand scale. The stand scale was used in the current publication of photographs and descriptions because stands-- and not landscapes or larger units-- are all that can be photographed with any detail to show vegetation. As shown below, hickories were often not only the obvious dominant but the most tolerant species and those accounting for most regeneration. As such, the SAF number was used below with the specification that hickory was co-dominant. Furthermore, as noted seven paragraphs above, black oak was not common on this Boston Mountains location but instead was generally absent from this more mesic area whose forest vegetation was an island of the Western Mesophytic Forest Association.

9. Mesic white oak-red oak-shagbark hickory forest- A stand of shagbark hickory within the specific mesic form or community indicated. Tolerance of shagbark hickory-- as for all Carya species-- is apparently open to debate. Harlow et al. (1979, p. 251) rated shagbark hickory as "moderately tolerant" while Burns and Honkala (1990, p. 222) regarded it as "intermediate". Both authorities agreed that shagbark hickory produces a deep, rapidly penetrating taproot and that younger trees of the species respout prolificly. Shagbark hickory is a minor component of six forest cover types recognized by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) and probably of others including the more mesic Beech-Sugar Maple Type (Burns and Honkala (1990, p. 221). Local dominance by shagbark hickory throughout this specific oak-hickory forest community in the Boston Mountains was one indication that this forest vegetation was a geologic-determined remnant or relict of the more eastern and mesic Western Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association as discussed immediately above. The trunk with the bleached-color bark in left background was one of many of the red or black oak species (subgenus Erythrobalanus) killed by an outbreak of the red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus). The center and foremost tree was red mulberry (Morus rubra) that, while not a rare species in the Ozarks, in combination with the other species of this community was yet another indicator of the botanical diversity and uniqueness of this specific vegetation. Understorey species were strictly woody and included flowering dogwood, sassafras, persimmon, wild hydrangea, poison ivy, smooth sumac, and Virginia creeper. Black locust as a small tree was present just to the right of the photograph. Interestingly, and ecologically significant, was the fact that the most common tree species that was regenerating in the understorey was shagbark hickory. This indicated that this species was indeed relatively tolerant. (See also the slide below of a white oak stand in this forest-- Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas-- where regeneration beneath large, mature Q. alba was shagbark hickory.) Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

10. Mesic white oak-red oak-shagbark hickory forest- Large and, thus, quite old shagbark hickories (two center, obvious trees) and white oak (two trees at far left) grew alongside an also-old sweetgum (leaves visible on far left, background trees behind and to left of hickories) for an unusual combination of species in the Ozark Plateau (Boston Mountains section). Understorey species were all woody plants with Virginia creeper dominant on the ground and with poison ivy growing up every tree trunk of any size. Shrubs throughout the community of this and other photo-plots in this series included persimmon, pawpaw, sassafras, flowering dogwood, and hop hornbeam. Wild hydrangea was common indicating the mesic nature of the general habitat. There was considerable sexual reproduction by shagbark hickory. Locally the red oak borer had destroyed many trees in the Erythrobalanus subgenus. Oaks in this group included both northern red oak (Quercus rubra= Q. borealis= combinations of both epithets) and southern red oak (Q. falcata). Q. velutina was conspicuous by its absence in this forest community as were post and blackjack oaks, but chinquapin oak was present in small numbers and cover in localized spots. In general, white oak was-- as is typical-- relatively more abundant on less mesic sites like south slopes while the various red/black oak species were more common on the more mesic sites, but there were many examples where all were "fully integrated" and grew side-by-side. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

11. Mesic white oak-red oak-hickory forest in Ozark Plateau- Here is a "sample" of the Mixed Western Mesophytic Forest Association "lost" a "fur piece" from it's Cumberland Plateau region here in the Boston Mountains section of the Ozark Plateau. It is a remarkably species-rich community in a small "plot". The half of a trunk on far left is of shagbark hickory. The four trees to the right of it and in center background were white oak. The largest tree on the right was bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), often regarded as intermediate in tolerance and more tolerant than it's associates (Harlow et al. (9179, p. 263; Burns and Honkala, 1990, p. 194). It will be seen that there were several lower small branches coming directly off the trunk of this large tree (leaves on these and interlacing furrows on bark made identification possible) suggesting relative tolerance in a dense forest. Understorey species included Virginia creeper all over the ground and poison ivy growing to tops of large trees. All the usual understorey shrub/small tree species of this area grew on or close to this photo-spot, including smooth sumac, persimmon, flowering dogwood, and wild hydrangea. Hop hornbeam was least common. None of the early spring forest forbs, like mayapple for example, were visible. Grasses and grasslike plants were absent. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin county, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

12. White oak stand representing the white oak phase of mesic white oak-red oak-hickory forest- Here all the large trees were white oak. The largest tree was approaching size of old-growth and was ripe for harvest. Regeneration was almost exclusively hickory, mostly shagbark and some bitternut. This hickory reproduction dominated the understorey and excluded most of the shrubs and small trees of the lower woody layers. For understorey species see captions for three slides of mesic white oak-red oak-hickory in this same forest (near community of Cass in Franklin County, Arkansas) shown above. Ecological implications of this were unknown, but in this local area the Carya species appeared to be tolerant enough to regenerate in what was obviously a dense forest and crowded understorey. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Froest Ecosysstem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

13. Bottomland (floodplain) gallery oak-hickory forest— a "finger" of the eastern deciduous forest projects into the climatic or regional climax tallgrass paririe here in the Cherokee Prairie in the Osage Plains division of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. This gallery forest community is classified by the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987) as wet-mesic bottomland forest. It is dominated by pin oak (Quercus palustris) represented here by the largest tree with the light-colored trunk (center). Associated species also visible include: western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), black cherry (Prunus serotina), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), bois d'arc, red mulberry (Morus rubra), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum). Dominant shrub is Missouri gooseberry (Ribes missouriense). Herb layer is absent. Missouri State Prairie Park, Barton County, Missouri. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). One riparian form or part of K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). Variant of SAF 65 (Pin Oak-Sweetgum). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

14. Oak-hickory forest- Landscape scale view in central Ozark Mountains of a white oak-black hickory (Carya texana)-black oak forest that is the mesophytic or climatic climax of this western-most extension of the deciduous forest proper of eastern North America. Shortleaf pine is an associate that is locally dominant. Post oak and scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) are also common upperstory associates. Flowering dogwood, persimmon, sumac (Rhus spp.), summer grape (Vitis aestivalis), and lowbush huckleberry (Vaccinum vacillans) dominate the shrub layer. The herb layer is composed of prairie grasses and forbs of the tallgrass prairie to the west. In addition to typical prairie species, a major legume component is present including tick clovers (Desmodium rotundifolium, D. nudiflorum), wild indigo (Baptisia leucophaea), and native Lespedeza spp. Classified as dry-chert forest by the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). Christian County, Missouri. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Classic example of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- White River Hills Ecoregion, 39c (Chapman et al., 2002).

White Oak (Quercus alba)-Black Oak (Q. velutina)-Northern Red Oak ((Q. rubra) Forests

Mixed white-black-northern red oaks forests probably constitute the "umbrella" or general forest type of which forests dominated singularly by white, black and northern red oaks are affilitated with each of these three being a forest cover type--frequently subclimax or climax--itself on certain forest sites. According to cover type descriptions by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, ps. 41-44) the white oak- black oak-northern red oak cover type (52) is clearly the most extensive or widely distributed forest type among these various cover types or forms of the oak-hickory association. Another rational perspective of SAF forest cover type 52 is that it is a transition zone among white oak (SAF 53), black oak (SAF 110), and northern red oak (SAF 55) types. In the western portion of the Ozark Plateau upland forests of the white oak-black oak-northern red oak cover type were usually found by this author to have developed on predominately north and east slopes with better drained soils resulting in overall moderately mesic to somewhat dry habitats. This corresponded to the dry-mesic chert forest of Nelson (2005, ps. 125-130). The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, ps. 41-42) listed white oak as the first of three dominants for this forest cover type and indicated that white oak occurrs across the moisture gradient from dry to moist. This followed the conclusion of Braun (1950, ps. 167- 168) that white oak was more common on north slopes, but that it was a major species on "many slope forests" where black oak was often "its principal associate" except on more mesic habitats where northern red oak held this status. Sugar maple is also a component species on slope forests, especially on limestone soils, "where it may be associated with white oak, red oak, chinquapin oak, basswood, and hickory" (Braun, 1950, p. 168). Where sugar maple is a dominant rather than associate species the forest vegetation is recognized as another form of Ozark Plateau forest (Braun , 1950, ps. 168-169) and a variant or form of the sugar maple cover type and/or the sugar maple-basswood cover type (Eyre, 1980, ps. 29-30, 31-32, respectively). These latter hardwood forests were interpreted as component communities--in effect, edapho-topographic climaxes--of the general oak-hickory association as was explained by Braun (1950, p. 33-34) and quoted in the introduction of this chapter above. The sugar maple types of the Ozark Plateau were treated later in this chapter of Range Types because they are climax forest types (associes vs. associations in the Clementsian model) of the oak-hickory association in Ozark Mountains forests. It was necessary to mention and draw attention (briefly) to Ozark sugar maple forests at this juncture because these cover types blend into the white oak-black oak-northern red oak type (SAF 52) and the northern red oak cover type (SAF 55); that is, there is a continuum among these various cover types, each of which can be climax on specifie forest range sites.

15. The mixed oak type above a hollow- Local second-growth stand of the white oak-black oak-northern red oak forest type in the western Ozark Plateau. This forest range vegetation grew on a predominately east slope. It was a more mesic forest site with co-dominants being white and northern red oaks. Woody plants from left to right in fore- and midground: sugar maple saplings with northern red and white oaks behind these; then from right of center (still left to right line-up) white oak, northern red oak, white oak, two northern red oaks, and, the shrubat far right, flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). Saplings behind these trees and shrubs were mostly bitternut or pignut hickory that was generally the associate species. Summer grape (Vitis aestivalis) was present with some growing among the sugar maple saplings (to confuse viewers trying to distinguish plant species). No herbaceous layer in this local stand. Instead there was a leaf layer acting as mulch that formed the ground layer of this forest vegetation. Ozarkers are fond of specifying that the hills are not as high as the "hollers" are deep. The composite mix of dominant trees just enumerated "ringed" the head of a hollow in the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Plateau. This forest had no large animals in it except free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocileus virginianus). Currently, deer populations were below carrying capacity of this forest range. Approximately 50-60 years ago this had been legal open range resulting in severe overgrazing and overbrowsing by livestock, especially hogs. Fisher Flats, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

16. Mixing around the edge- A second-growth stand of white, black , and northern red oak with a diverse understorey formed a composite example of this forest cover type at the head of a hollow on a predominately east slope in the western Ozark Plateau (Springfield Plateau). The three Quercus species were "about evenly divided" as tri-dominants. The associate species was pignut, bitternut, or (sometimes) white hickory. The principal shrub was flowering dogwood. The largest tree (left margin, foreground) was white oak as was the tree at far right. Center (somewhat right of center) tree was a black oak. There was some regeneration of all oak and hickory species in spite of considerable shade. It was concluded that for this was the climax vegetation for this forest range as Eyre (1980, p. 42) concluded for the Ozark Highlands. This local second-growth stand of mixed oak was, like the stand presented in the last slide, also at the head of a hollow. Likewise grazing/browsing by large animals was limited to that by white-tail deer. Fisher Flats, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

17. Under the oaks- A photo-quadrant that featured local herbaceous constituents of the east slope, second-growth stand white oak-black oak-northern red oak forest described in the immediately preceding caption. As in the instance of that stand there was regeneration of all major tree species (the three oaks and bitternut hickory). Again, flowering dogwood was the dominant shrub. The dominant herbaceous species was big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii). In this photograph the most abundant forb was the introduced perennial legume serecia lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata). Shrubs comprised a pronounced and varied layer including smooth shumac (Rhus glabra) poison oak or ivy (R. radicans= Toxicodendron radicans), summer grape, Virginian creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), greenbriar (Smilax spp.), and flowering dogwood. The various species of woody vines formed a "unifying" layer from ground layer to canopy of tallest trees. Fisher Flats, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

18. Holler away- Two photographs of a second-growth mixed oak-sugar maple forests at head of another hollow in the Springfield Plateau. The forest range vegetation introduced here and described in the next series of slides was in the general vicinity of the head-of-hollow white oak-black oak-northern red oak-bitternut hickory forest presented immediately above. This was a north versus the predominately east slope of the preceding stands. Composition of the adult and regenerating tree layers (including sugar maple) was the same as east slope stands except that bitternut or pignut hickory was barely present (largely absent) from this north slope forest. The most pronounced differences between the north and east slope forests were in the herbaceous and shrub layers. The dominant herbaceous species on this north slope was the native perennial legume, tick clover (Desmodium nudiflorum), whereas the dominant herb on the slightly drier east slope was big bluestem. Flowering dogwood was common to both east and north slope forests, but on north slope stands the associate shrub was highbush or squaw huckleberry or deerberry (Vaccinium staminium) followed by eastern or common redbud (Cercis canadensis). Young individuals of sassafras (small sapling-size), although a tree species at maturity, comprised another constitutent of the shrub layer. Two photographs showing the same local stand of mature trees of a second-growth mixed oak-sugar maple, Ozark Hihglands forest on a north slope (mesic) with very limited understorey (mostly shed leaf ground layer). The first of these two photographs (vertical) presented a textbook line-up of the species composition of this forest cover type. Tree species from left to right: white oak, northern red oak, white oak, northern red oak , and two white oaks. The second photograph presented most of the same trees in a horizontal plane (left to right): white oak, northern red oak, white oak, northern red oak, and white oak. In the shade of this dense stand there was little if any understorey except for a ground layer of shed leaves with an occasional plant of Desmodium nuiflorum, another unidentified (pre-bloom) Desmodium species, and sugar maple seedling. This tract of forest had not been grazed/browsed by livestock for decades (probably about a half century). From the frontier era up to that time forests in this area had been subjected to free-ranging livestock (including swine) under legal open range status with abuse of forest resources being "the norm". Spring burning of these woods was also a common practice until about the same period. Subsequently the only ungulates-- large vertebrates at all for that matter--in this forest were free-ranging white-tailed deer which ranged throughout this and adjacent forests. At time of these photographs deer numbers had not reached the stage of overpopulation, not yet anyway. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

19. A hollow cast of charaacters- At the head of a hollow on a north slope in the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Highlands a second-growth, hardwood forest of white oak-black oak-northern red oak (tri-dominants) with sugar maple as the associate species had developed. This local stand provided a good example of this climax forest cover type and its range vegetation. Tree species in this photograph (left to right) were a mid-size white oak and two young pole-size northern red oaks. Between these three trees and in mid foreground were two small, crooked-trunk saplings of flowering dogwood. Eastern redbud was present though scarce. Scattered small saplings of sassafras were also present as in the woody layer that was dominated by shrubs (again, mostly flowering dogwood). Major herbaceous species were two species of tick clover (Desmodium nuiflorum and another Desmodium species in pre-bloom stage that could not be positively identified). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

20. Principal players- Good species composition "quadrant" showing climax species of: 1) dominant trees, dominant shrub, and dominant forbs which also portrayed layers of vegetation and general forest structure. Plants in a left to right line in foreground of slide were: leaves of black oak (left margin), two black oaks, bent sapling of sugar maple (foreground), and white oak (extreme right margin). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

21. Developing forest with the understorey coming first (or forest vegetation on the edge)- An edge of the north slope white oak-black oak-northern red oak forest featured here provided an opportunity to document a successional stage of forest development. All three oak species and sugar maple had ample regeneration at the gap-like edge of this mesic Ozark Hihglands second-growth forest. Summer grape was also well-represented by young and conspicuous plants as was highbush or squaw huckleberry (short woody plants with large linear shade leaves). Some sassafras was present as large seedlings. The major herbaceous species was one of the rosette panicgrasses (one of the species in Dichanthelium subgenus), which in the post-spring bloom and grain-shatter stages could not be identified positively, but seemed most likely to be western panicgrass or western rosettegrass (Panicum lanuginosum= Dichanthelium acuminatum var. implicatum= Dichanthelium lanuginosum). Members of the Dichanthelium subgenus produce winter foliage in the form of a rosette (hence rosette Panicum spp.) from which infloresecences emerge to typically bloom in mid to late apring and then again in autumn. This rosette panicgrass species presented here had formed an extensive colony at edge of the north slope mixed oak-sugar maple forest. Poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata) was also abundant-- by standards of the shade cast by this forest even at its outer edge. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

22. Highbush huckleberry, squaw huckleberry, or deerberry (Vaccinium staminium)- On oak-hickory forest range of the Ozark Hihglands where this shrub occurs it is a defining species because highbush huckleberry has nothing even approaching the commonness and widespread feature of other shrubs likc flowering dogwood, blackberries, smooth sumac, poison oak or ivy, and Virginia creeper. Highbush huckleberry is usually restricted to the more mesic, yet well-lite forest sites. This specimen was growing at the edge of the north slope, white oak-black oak-northern red oak-sugar maple forest shown in the four immediately preceding photographs. Seedlings in lower corner of foreground were black oak and blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect); immature fruit stage of phenology.

Black Oak (Quercus velutina) Forests

In western parts of the Ozark Highlands, such as the Springfield Plateau, black oak-dominated forests are some of the most common remaining forest tracts as they are found on some of the driest, shallowest, rockiest soils and, hence, generally the harshiest of remaining forest sites. The more mesic forest sites with their deeper, less stoney soils (ie. the less marginal, more-or-less arable land) naturally developed old-growth forest that were dominated by northern red and white oaks (with black oak as an associate species). Most of these more productive mesophytic forests were converted to hill-side pastures, strawberry patches, fruit orchards, and even field or vegetable crops decades ago. Some of the cropland derived by clearing the original (post-Indian) white oak and northern red oak forests was retired from intensive cropping years later as a result of socio-economic developments (ie. loss of small, inefficient farms). Some of the old-fields (abandoned farmland) on these almost subsistence-level (and hobby) farms have gone back through secondary plant succession to the stage that they revegetated to seral or subclimax black oak forest. Also, some old-growth (climax) black oak forest have recovered and are routinely logged (usually high-graded or clearcut) at, say, quarter to half century intervals. Some examples of these second-growth black oak forests and secondary plant succession on them following disturbance was presented in the following section.

23. Dormancy afforded a good "look-see"- With leaves on the ground instead of in the canopy an all-in-one view was provided of structure, arrangement, species composition, and lumber crop of a climax black oak-northern red oak forest full of mature trees.Black and white hickory (Carya texana and C. tometosa, respectively) were associate tree species. There were some post oaks, but this was clearly a forest site for the black oak species with black oak the dominant and northern red oak the associate species. There was also mentionable cover of black cherry, which probably indicated infrequent surface fires in this stand. Grasses were few in understorey, but dominant was broomsedge bluestem. There had been a history of cattle grazing in this stand, but it was generally light (mostly breechy ones looking for better pasture and finding worse than they left). Canopy was too dense for much herbaceous understorey other than for that of early season species like Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). Many of the larger trees in this stand were over-ripe and dying or even dead. For this forest site and this stocking rate these trees were probably of their maximum size. There were several snags. However most regeneration was hickory. This was a second-growth forest, yet species composition and structure of forest was climax. This forest approached old-growth status. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

24. Now a summer view- With leaves back up in the canopy a vastly different perspective was afforded of the same climax black oak-northern red oak of mature trees as introduced immediately above. There was ample regeneration of hardwoods, but hickory predominated. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

25. Interior of the climax black oak-northern red oak forest presented in the immediately preceding two sets of two slides each. Abundant reproduction of hickory so that this stand was becoming a hickory phase or variant of the black oak cover type. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

Forest remains: harvest of the black and northern red oaks-black and mockernut hickories forest- The tract of upland black and northern red oaks-black and white or mockernut hickories forest shown immediately above was highgrade-logged and basically clearcut in winter (and on the sly) 15 years after the preceding photographs were taken. The cutover land was re-photographed in July of the second spring-summer growing season post-harvest. Redevelopment of forest vegetation on this improperly logged, degraded tract was a combination of typical old-field plant succession beginning with pioneer or colonizing species including giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), horseweed or mare's tail (Conyza canadensis), hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanginualis), and the naturalized annual, beefsteak plant (Perilla frutescens) along with climax dominants that were regenerating both sexually and asexually. Most asexual reproduction was in black oak (and some northern red oak) by coppicing from mid-size stumps. The other three species besides climax dominants that had appreciable cover were black cherry (Prunus serotina) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). Trees with noticeably less cover were , Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioica), American elm (Ulmus americana), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Surprisingly, the typical pioneer tree species, sycamore had less cover than would be expected judging from recovering vegetation on other severely disturbed sites in the immediate vicinity. Other tree species commonly found as pioneer or early seral plants included sassafras (Sassafras albidum) and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). These two species were also less abundant than in the typical situation observed for disturbance in this vicinity. This cutover land had not been denuded to the extreme old-field state. Most regeneration of dominant climax trees was of the hickory species present as saplings before logging (described and ahown above). Most reproduction of oak (especially black oak) at this point in forest recovery was by stump-sprouting. There were few oak or hickory seedlings at this stage of secondary succession.Most seedlings were sycamore, black cherry, American elm, and sassafras. Some smaller though sexually mature trees that were left standing in the clearcut as well as uncut adult trees on the perimeter of the forest (see below) served as seed trees. Otherwise, re-establishment of oaks and hickories depended on coppicing and/or the soil seed bank. Shrubs were very important in this recovering vegetation. Far and away the most important shrubs were blackberry (probably including several Rubus species) that formed immense thickets that were summarily invaded by this author adequately equipped with buckets at berry picking time. Another important shrub (though less productive of tasty fruit) was smooth sumac (Rhus glabra). Fox grape (Vitis vulpina) and summer grape (V. aestivalis) had spread quickly on the cutover land. Eastern redbud (Celtis canadensis) and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) that had already been growing in this forest remained minus minimal mechanical damage. This remarkably diverse recovery vegetation also included numerous species of forbs, both native and naturalized. The latter included the biennial, flannel mullein (Verbascum thapsus), and introduced legumes, both perennials such as white clover (Trifolium repens) and red clover (T. pretense) and annuals like Korean or Japanese lespedeza (Lespedeza striata). Other forbs included numerous natives like biennial evening primrose (Oenothera biennis); pokeweed (Phytolacca americana); and various composites, especially giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), common ragweed (A. artemisiifolia), Carolina elephant foot (Elephantopus carolinianus), Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), Canada wild lettuce (Lactuca canadensis), and wingstem crown-beard (Verbesina alternifolia). The pioneering composite, horseweed or mare's tail was widespread and locally dominant although generally not in dominating proportions that might have been expected (and, probably, present in the first season following harvest). There was also some immature smartweed or knotweed plants (Polygonum sp.) that could not be identified as to species along with toothed spurge (Euphorbia dentata). Pokeweed was the most widespread and overall most important forb, but giant ragweed was a close second forming dense stands from which almost all plants of other species were excluded. The only common grass was hairy crabgrass. The perennial grasses were represented almost exclusively by broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus). Poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata) already present in the understorey persisted by larger stumps where it was not "overrun by pioneer species. There was also an occasional plant of purpletop (Tridens flavesus) next to shelter (eg. uncut tree).There were also some plants of green and/or yellow foxtail (Setaria viridis, S. glauca, respectively) which could not be distinguished at vegetative stages present at time of photographs. Likewise there were incidental plants of Carex and Cyperus species. White-tailed deer where the only species of large vertebrate that had access to this was black oak-northern red oak forest which had not been grazed/browsed by cattle or hogs for several decades. In the climax oak-hickory forest that approached old-growth state there were very few plants available for grazing and/or browsing in the understorey. These were limited to leaves and buds on regenerating oak and hickory species, flowering dogwood, poison oak/ivy, and incidental plants (trace amounts in absolute and relative cover) of blackberry, poverty oakgrass, and sedge. This tract of black oak-dominated upland Ozark Plateau forest was clearly transitory forest range. Once (after) canopy cover reached almost 100% almost no light that could penetrate throught the dense foliage to reach the ground (soil) surface. After leaves were fully grown in the forest canopy each spring light could only reach to the level delineated by lower leaves on shrubs like flowering dogwood and saplings of oak, hickory, black cherry, etc. In this climax oak-hickory forest with mature ("over-ripe") trees spring forbs like mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) were not present except in natural forest gaps and at forest edges. Organization Note: a black oak-pignut or mockernut climax forest that served as permanent forest range was presented and described in the Use and Abuse of Oak-Hickory Forests section of Oak-Hickory Forests-II. Harvest of this forest was an example that socioeconomic factors often override biological ones, and that many if not most human endeavors (not excluding silvicultural operations) involve human emotions including greed and jealosy. Logging of this oak-hickory forest was a case of timber theft. A thieving son snuck in and stole this standing timber from his aged father who for romatic and aesthetic reasons wanted the forest with its many mature trees left as it was. The conniving son left uncut the trees around the edges of this forest to hide what he was doing inside the tract. The timber-buyer left some of the smaller trees inside the perimeter that he felt were not worth felling (probably to the chagrin of the greedy son who worked up all the slash to sell as fuelwood). Not only was this dysfunctional family relations, but it was also improper forest practices: cut-and-run, sloppy, (and illegal) logging of the worst form, the kind that gives the forest products industry a bad reputation. Thief of "free grass" and "timber for the taking" was standard fare in early history of use and abuse of forest and rangeland resources. The important thing for rangemen and foresters to bear in mind is that these resources are, to large degree, renewable (even with improper harvest methods and other forms of abuse). The following series of slides was of the black and northern red oak-black and/or Texas and mockernut hickories upland forest in the second growing season following highgrade logging that was, in effect, land-clearing.

26. Missing trees, stolen timber- The second-growth black oak-dominated (northern red oak, associate) forest shown and described here was secretly clearcut with a few smaller trees left around the perimeter so that a son could hide the timber theft from his aged father. The crime scene and second-year successional vegetation was presented in two photographs that gave a general view of the cleared forest. The wasted sound logs in the first of these slides added resource waste and abuse to the weed patch effect. In both slides remaining trees (a young northern red oak in the first; black and northern red oaks, Texas or Ozark and mockernut hickories in the second) "looked on" cutover land supporting a pioneer stage of recovering forest vegetation dominated by such colonizing species as the annual composite, giant ragweed, along with common ragweed, hairy crabgrass and such disturbance-loving perennials as pokeweed, black-eyed susan, Baldwin ironweed, wingstem crown-beard , Carolina elephant's foot. Foreign weeds that benefitted from this disturbance included flannel mullein and beefstake plant. Common shrubs included several species of blackberry, summer and fox grape, and smooth sumac. This stage of secondary plant succession on a black oak-dominated Ozark Highlands upland forest was about half-way into the second warm-growning season following clearcutting of a second-growth forest that approached old-growth status. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

27. Into the weeds (and the ticks and chiggers)- Two close-in views of seral vegetation on a forest site that two winters or one an a half warm-growing seasons before had been a climax black oak-northern red oak (dominant and associate species, respectively) upland forest that was harvested by clearcutting (in effect a land-clearing operation). The most abundant herbaceous species were giant and common ragweeds. Other composite forbs included black-eyed susan, common horseweed or mare's tail, an Carolina elephant's foot. Pokeweed and flannel mullein represented native perennial and naturalized Eurasian biennial forbs, respectively. Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata), a perennial herbaceous vine or twining forb, was conspicuous along right margin (about half-way up) in the first slide. The only grass with cover and density worthy of note in the seral range vegetation presented in these two photographs was hairy crabgrass. Shrubs included blackberry, smooth sumac, and summer and fox grape. Tree species present as pre-existing (present before logging), stump sprouts, or seedlings included black oak, northern red oak, post oak, Texas or Ozark hickory, mockernut hickory, black cherry, American elm, red elm, sassafras, and persimmon. Young trees (either too small to make a saw log and/or serving as a cover to conceal the crime sceene from outside the clearcut) included all of the oak and hickory species as well as a few black cherry. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

28. Edge effect, a benefit of forest harvest- Two more general views of a clearcut in a black oak-dominated climax forest in the Springfield Plateau. These two photographs high-lighted the effect of edge, the union of standing trees at perimeter of the now clearcut forest and seral range vegetation developing on the clearcut through secondary plant successtion midway through the second warm-growing season post-harvest. Some of the more abundant and conspicuous herbaceous species on this clearing included native forbs common to disturbed habitats: smartweed, Baldwin ironweed, pokeweed, giant ragweed, common ragweed. Most of these were of little or, at least, very limited forage value. The forb of most forage value was red clover, a naturalized, Eurasian, perennial legume (barely visible in the first photograph as pink clusters). How such abundant cover of this valuable forage plant developed by the second growing following logging remained a mystery. Farmers in this local vicinity have overseeded permanent pastures to red clover. Clearcutting had converted a climax forest with limited understorey (most of that regenerating hardwoods, especially hickory species) into a cutover pasture or range that, though a far cry from standards of high-quality tame pasture, provided valuable forage plants for livestock and wildlife including an introduced, perennial legume; a palatable, annual grass, and forbs of diverse palatability). This was transitory forest range. The second of these slides featured the numerous woody species that invaded the clearing the first growing season following clearcutting. Most conspicuous were two-year-old seedlings of sycamore (center of photograph). There were stump sprouts and seedlings of black oak, Ozark and mockernut hickories and black cherry. Most of the latter were seedlings or pre-established saplings. Prominent forbs in successional range vegetation shown in the second slide included Baldwin ironweed, giant ragweed, and common ragweed. Young vines of summer and fox grape trailed and wound their way around newly established large patches of blackberry out of which grew black cherry, sassafras, and elm (both American and red). In this arrangement of seral vegetation there were edges within edges:. edges where blackberry patches met weed (eg. colonizing composites, pokeweed, flannel mullein) patches within the edge that was the perimeter of the climax black oak-red northern oak forest. This was shown in more detail in the next set of two slides. In Nature any disturbance--no matter how traumatic or disturbing of existing species, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, etc--is a boon to some other species, communities, ecosystems, and so on. Clearcutting the climax, near old-growth black oak-northern red oak forest that occupied this site was an extreme perturbation, a drastic alternation of that forest ecosystem, that had dire consequences on many living things ranging from old trees and their dependent fungi species, squirrels, pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), and humans due to dissolutionous family relations between a father and a theiving son. That action, that extreme ecological disturbance, also created greately improved habitat for white-tailed deer and northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). One of numerous reasons why populations of bobwhite quail have declined throughout much of the Ozark Plateau Region is that their prime habitat of old-fields, recovering cleared forests, and small farm fields had revegetated back (had secondary plant succession progress closer toward) the pre-white man forest. Advanced seral, subclimax, and climax stage oak-hickory forests provide marginal to poor habitat for bobwhite. "Setting back" forest vegetation to pioneer and other early seral stages was (is) of immense benefit to seral species like bobwhite quail and white-tailed deer. When this climax forest (with its high proportion of rotten trees that were "overripe" for quality hardwood lumber) was logged pileated woodpeckers that lived off of insects that thrived on decaying wood as well as cavity nesting mammals including squirrels, 'possums (Didelphis virginiana), and coons (Procyon lotor) came out "loosers", at least in the short run. Critical parts of their habitat were eliminated. Perhaps this was the situation for wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and raptors like great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaciensis), all species that commonly lived in the black oak-northern red oak forest with its old age, over-mature trees. However, turkey and coon soon benefitted from increased production of blackberries, pokeberries, etc. Reduction of canopy cover facilitated predation by raptors although owls are still going to have to find dense tree canopy to escape their arch enemy, the annoying, sleep-depriving crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The 'possum will miss her favorite hollow tree, but see what a crop of persimmons will be produced for her descendants in a few years. The edge where uncut, timber theft-blocking trees meet and merge with the new weed and brush patch provided a new corridor as well as ample cover for new feed sources for various species of animals and new growing environments for plants. Use of natural resources always producers "winners"and "loosers". Wise use to conservation prophets like Gifford Pinchot consisted of finding that "blend" which, in the spirit of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism, "provided the greatest good to the greatest number for the longest period of time". As was shown in later descriptions and discussions of clearcutting this climax black oak-forest, it was quite likely that in the "long run" Pinchot's standard for wise use was fulfilled on this land, in spite of the villainous crime committed by a treasonous son against the rest of his family. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

29. A closer look at edges and species make-up of seral vegetation- Two photographs showing seral forest range vegetation about half-way through its second warm-growing season growing adjacent to adult black and northern red oak trees that were left uncut to hid from view a forest clearcut of a climax black oak-dominated upland forest in the western Ozark Plateau. The plant communites that developed along the uncut forest perimeter occured spatially as "rows" (narrow zones) of woody plants (both tree saplings and shrubs) while there were larger patches of "weedy" colonizing species interior to the "belts" of wody vegetation. In the first photograph a narrow belt of adult black and northern red oaks was in the background while the foreground was an area dominated by giant and common ragweed. The bulk of the recovering forest vegetation (midground of photograph) was a blackberry patch with numerous saplings of black cherry, American and red elms, and sassafras (less persimmon) along with fox and summer grapes. The second photograph also showed a "weed patch" that was almost exclusively giant ragweed with some common ragweed and mare's tail orhorseweed (foreground) contiguous with a zone or "natural row" of blackberry patch with tree saplings and shrubs the major ones of which were smooth sumac, the two grape speceis, black cherry, American elm with some climax hardwoods (more hickories than black or red oaks). Such strips of seral woody vegetation are almost impenetrable to humans as the blackberry picking photographer attested. This is bobwhite habitat par excellence. Even pointers experience some problems getting through such brushy barriers. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

30. Sere colonizers, both pioneer newcomers and climax holdovers- Two close-up "photo-plots" of seral range vegetation on a climax black oak-dominated upland forest site in wesstern Ozark Highlands that had been clearcut two winters previously. Recovering forest vegetation in these photographs was about half-way through the second warm-growing season after logging. The plant community of this pioneer or initial seral stage was a combination of colonizing species (giant ragweed, common ragweed, mare's tail or horseweed, hairy crabgrass, and beefsteak plant) native perennial composite forbs (Baldwin ironweed and Carolina elephant's foot), biennial forbs (flannel mullein and biennial evening primrose), native shrubs (blackberry, smooth sumac, summer and fox grape, Virginia creeper), colonizing trees or generally less tolerant tree species (sycamore, black cherry, sassafras, American and red elm), and seedlings and stump srpouts of climax trees (black and red oaks, Ozark or Texas and mockernut hickories). An amazing array of plant species in small local habitats. Seral range vegetation shown in the first slide consisted of a weed patch dominated by giant ragweed with Canada wild lettuce, biennial evening primerose, and greeen and/or yellow foxtail mixed with woody species ranging from black oak and hickory seedlings and stump sprouts to summer grape that had developed in front of an edge of woody vegetation made up of taller shrubs and young tree saplings. Shrubs included blackberry, smooth sumac, fox and summer grapes while saplings ranged from black oaks and two hickory species to American and red elms, black cherry, and sassafras. This was another example of the edge where different plant communities meet producing the edge effect that is so important for certain species of wildlife. Northern bobwhite quail was a species of great local importance that benefits immensely from this kind of seral range vegetation.. The second slide was of seral forest range vegetation dominated by forbs and seedlings and stump sprouts mostly of black oak and the two hickory species. Conspicuous forbs included giant ragweed, horseweed or mare's tail (many of which had upper parts of shoots grazed off by white-tailed deer), Canada wild lettuce (also grazed by deer though less so than mare's tail), toothed spurge, and biennial evening primrose. Red clover was also present but less conspicuous in spite of its showy inflorescneces than the taller-growing "weedy" colonizers. Tha annual grasses, airy crabgrass and green or yellow foxtail, were the representatives of the Gramineae in this photograph There was considerable cover of young Virginia creeper. The tree trunk in center midground was a black oak. Sprouts surrounding this black oak were mostly Ozark and mockernut hickories. Also in this slide was a hollow butt portion (roughly one ana a half foot diameter) of a black oak log that was later used for fuelwood. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

31. Forgiving oaks- Four examples of stump sprouting or coppicing in black oak on a black oak-northern red oak upland forest in the western Ozark Highlands (Springfield Plateau section) midway through the second growing season for hardwood species following clearcutting. Coppice was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as: "1. the production of new stems from the stump or roots 2. to cut the main stem (particularly of broadleaved species) at the base or to injure the roots to stimulate the production of new shoots for regneration 3. a plant derived by coppicing 4. any shoot arising from an adenvtitious or dormant bud near the base of a woody plant that has been cut back". All four meanings were appropriate for the morphological/physiological phenomenon presented in the four black oak stumps and their second-season suckers. Helms (1998) also provided: "stool- a living stump (capable of) producing sprouts". Coppice shoots or stools (and related forms of vegetative reproduction including water shoots, suckers, and sprouts) are, of course, clones, ramets, modules or modular units of the parent plant, genet, entire vegetative plant, respectively. A simplified explanation is that stump sprouts are natural grafts or naturally formed scions arising from the stock (the stump or root). Forest regeneration by coppicing is a major silvicultural system (or component treatment thereof) for certain hardwood species. Black oak has not generally or typically been viewed as a coppice species or black oak lumber as a coppice crop to the extent as for some other species (eg. black cherry), but on the clearcut described in the above captions a high proportion of the felled black oak did coppice (sprout back from living stumps). In fact, this is the usual regeneration response of black oak, at least of the younger trees. Stump sprouting in black oak was described in Silvics of Trees of the United States (Fowells, 1965, p. 560; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2.p. 747). The latter reported that roughly 95% of black oak regeneration in clearcutting was by sprouts from either stumps or "advance reprodution" (new sprouts from dormant buds near juincture of shoot and root). An interesting inverse relationship exist between stump size and successful stump sprouting. Shoots (sprouts= stools) from black oaks that were larger at harves grow faster than those of smaller cut trees; however, stump sprouting was inversely related to stump size, tree age, and forest site with larger stumps and those of older trees (often "same difference") having reduced sprout perduction. In other words stumps of bigger trees (ie. larger diameter stumps) and, hence, usually older trees are less apt to sprout, but if they do sprout these suckers (stump shoots) grow faster (have more rapid grow rates) than suckers from smaller stumps. This is a common--if not nearly universal--physiological response in hardwood species. Black oak stump-sprouts less readily than norther red oak which, as on this oak-hickory forest, is commonly associated with black oak. Fowels (1965, p. 591) cited research that reported over two-thirds of black oak reproduction in the Missouri Ozarks was "of sprout origin". Nonetheless, coppicing is the best possible means to replace 1) "original" (genetically identical) trees and shrubs and 2) climax woody species. In this regard, sawing logs amounts to the same thing as mowing shoots of perennial forage species for hay. With properly harvest the species composition of the tree component of the clearcut forest is essentially the same as it was before logging. In the instance of the upland Ozark Highlands black oak-dominated forest that served as the example for this lesson there was a cruel irony to the clearcutting operation in which a theiving son stole timber from his trusting father. The criminal act of forest harvest actually benefitted the black oak-northern red oak forest. The felled trees were still of an age and/or size that a high proportion of them coppiced (stump-sprouted) resulting in regeneration of both 1) the climax tree species and 2) reproduction of the same genetic individuals (ie. restoration of the identical harvested trees). Obviously the shoots (trunks= boles) of the mature (actually, over-mature) trees will not be restored because they were hauled of to the sawmill for pallats and framing lumber, but genetically these identical trees will regrow (grow back) so as to be be replaced as they were before forest harvest. There will be the same original root systems and basal trunks, the stumps, but morphologically new trunks. Based on canopy cover the proportion of black and northern red oaks in the recovering (seral) forest was less than in the climax forest, but climax tree species (and the same individual trees) were in the seral forest vegetation from the initial (pioneer) stage of plant succession (forest restoration). With asexual reproduction (coppicing) climax trees were present in the initial plant community following clearcutting rather than entering the forest sere later in the sequence of secondary plant succession as would be necessary if climax tree establishment depended solely of sexual reproduction (production of seedlings). Net result will be (barring other or continued severe forest disturbances) a more rapid return to the terminal stage of plant succession (ie. a shorter time interval to replace the climax black oak-northern red oak forest). Ironically, if the near old-growth black and red oaks (many of them already "overripe" with trunks partly hollow with heart rot) had remained standing for more years most of them would have been too old to coppice. Thus regeneration of the climax oak species almost assuredly would have been much lower and slower. Sexual reproduction (seedlings from acorns) of black and red oak is much less likely (much lower probability of successful tree establishment) than is asexual reproduction by coppicing. Furthermore, recall (from photographs and descriptions of the unlogged, nearly old-growth forest) that most tree reproduction in this climax black oak-dominated forest was of the associates, Ozark hickory (a small tree at maturity) and, secondly, mockernut hickory. In this forest of mature oak trees and in absence of natural disturbances like windthrow (blowdown) and fire the climax oak species were, through a combination of natural death due to old age and lower rates of regeneration, being replaced by replaced by hickory species. Clearcutting this black oak-dominated forest resulted in 1) regeneration of the climax oaks along with that of the associate hickory species, 2) increased plant biodiversity due to a combination of regeneration of climax species and colonization by pioneer ("weedy") species, 3) increased forage and browse production for livestock and deer, 4) improved habitat for bobwhite quail, and 5) caused loss of habitat for plant and animal species dependant on climax forest vegetation.

32. .Black oak forest in an Ozark spring- Interior view of dry chert upland forest dominated by black oak with post oak, red oak, blackjack oak, and black hickory as associates. There are two obvious shrub layers: 1) an upper one dominated by flowering dogwood (State Tree of Missouri; conspicuous here), redbud (State Tree of Oklahoma), and shadbush= eastern serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea) and 2) a lower one dominated by buckbrush= coral berry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) and blackberry. Wild grape and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) form an aboreal shrub layer while poison ivy (Rhus radicans = Toxicodendron radicans) occurs in both shrub layers ranging from lianas extending to tops of trees to non-climbing thickets.The herb layer is usually limited to early spring species that complete their annual cycle before greening of the forest canopy. Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) is the conspicuous dominant herb. Head of hollow on a chert upland. April, early vernal aspect. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005). IMPORTANT: As a general rule, browsing animals find deciduous shrubs and trees considerably more palatable than coniferous ones with the general response being that deciduous forests are much more prone to suffer damage, especially retarded regeneration, by overbrowsing than are coniferous forests. Understandably, foresters are reluctant to recommend (typically adamantly oppose) stocking livestock on hardwood forest types.Swine with their incessant rooting and feeding on mast are the livestock species that cause the most damage to these remarkably fragile range types.Proper livestock stocking rates on hardwood range are those described generically as “conservative”. These are forests that are usually most valuable for watershed and whose main crop or commodity is wood. HARDWOOD FORESTS ARE NOT " STOMP LOTS" !

33. Dormant but healthy- An Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak that had received no livestock grazing for decades supported various age classes of trees. Other major trees included northern red oak, black hickory, black walnut, Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and black cherry (Prunus serotina). Typical understorey shrubs included redbud, flowering dogwood, and woody vines such as various species of greenbriar and grape along with Virginia creeper and poison ivy (oak). This forest stand was so dense and had a nearly closed canopy so as to exclude development of an herbaceous understorey other than for early growing season species like mayapple. In most precise terms, the potential natural vegetation of this tree-dominated plant community was more woodland than forest per se. Climax vegetation would most likely consist of a more open or incomplete canopy cover (ie. tree crowns would not be interlocking). Nelson (1987, 2005) made a rational, well-written distinction between forest and woodland vegetation of the Ozark Plateau. The stand of black and post oak-dominated vegetation described here and immediately below were Dry-Mesic Chert Woodland (Nelson, 2005, ps. 190-193). Otawa County, Oklahoma. January. An upland forest of mixed oak and hickory species, but given overall dominance of this and adjoining forest stands the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) cover type that most closely fit this forest vegetation was Black Oak (SRM 110). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

34. Also dormant but not healthy- An Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak that had been grazed by beef cattle for decades. This stand (if that term could be used loosely for comparitive purposes) was about 150 yards down a county road from the stand shown in the preceding slide. In addition to mature black oak, post oak, and, fewer, northern red oak (some of each species were on the ridge crest in background) there was a pole-size black walnut. There were also numerous and very conspicuous seedlings to small saplings (say, two to eight years in age) of eastern red cedar, an eastern juniper (Juniperus virginiana). There was zero regeneration of hardwoods of any species including the strongly smelling, usually unpalatable black walnut. This stand was a degraded Dry-Mesic Chert Woodland (Nelson, 2005, ps. 190-193) with potential natural vegetation for this forest site being an open or sporadic (vs. closed or complete) canopy of an actual forest having interlocking crowns. Foresters and rangemen would still management this as a stand of hardwood trees capable of producing high-quality oak, hickory, black walnut lumber as as having a grazable understorey for light stocking of livestock and habitat for wildlife including white-tailed deer, bobwhite quail, and squirrels. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.

35. Older hardwoods and younger cedars (or Where are the young hardwoods?)- The same "stand" of Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak as presented in the immdeiately preceding slide. Large, two-trunked tree in center foreground was northern red oak. Extreme overrgrazing/overbrowsing for unknown decades (probably half a century or longer) had prevented regeneration of hardwood species. This management of a hardwood stand as a "stomp lot" had taken place over such a long time that even ploe-size trees were absent from these "woods". Overgrazing/overbrowsing by cattle had not only been responsible for failure of hardwood reproduction, but this poor forestry (and animal husbandry) practice had also prevented periodic surface fires in what would otherwise have been an oak-hickory-walnut forest. Removal of essentially all herbage and prevention of production of fine woody material pre-empted light forest burning (ie. there was no fuel). Meanwhile birds that had eaten the fleshy seeds of eastern red cedar on rocky north slopes and bluffs above a nearby creek perched in and defeacted cedar seeds from the mature oak and black walnut trees. This avian behavior resulted in establishment of young cedar seedlings and saplings in the understory. In absence of fuel for light surface fires eastern red cedar was becoming established as the new forest cover type (SAF 46, Eastern Redcedar). Cattle will not eat eastern red cedar even inside corrals (or "cowpens" as such enclosures are called by many Ozark hillfolk). Barring disease these eastern junipers are safe-- at least until they become so large and close together (adequate canopy cover) that an accidental fire can spread almost instaneously through their crowns (ie. a crown fire, which is what any self-respecting rangeman would be hoping for in this degraded forest range site). This is horrid mismanagement of resources resulted in anthropogenic vegetation that was textbook case of grazing disclimax. In fact, this stand fit perfectly the description of the Eastern Redcedar forest cover type (SAF 46) by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p.50-51). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.

36. "In the Good Ole Summertime" but still "sick"- Sleek cattle and green leaves do not change the fact that this s