Juniper-Pinon Woodland

1. A savanna of High Plains grassland of blue grama, black grama, buffalograss, silver bluestem, galleta, wolftail (Lycurus phleoides), and threeawns with scattered one-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma)— Under disturbance this savanna community is often transitory to juniper-pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) woodland which may in turn increase in tree density to form a closed canopy forest over the climax mixed prairie or shortgrass plains. This latter state is afforestation, an anthropogenic woody invasion. It is one of the worst forms of range deterioration (retrogression) in North America. This massive-scale retrogression is due to numerous factors like overgrazing, fire suppression, transportation systems, and adjoining commercial and residential development. Changing climate and succession to another climax is possible, but likely does not explain the huge increases in juniper-pinyon woodland across the American West. Note: Changes in vegetation due to cycles of changing climate was a popular concept among pioneer plant ecologists (eg. sunspot activity was a “pet” theory) a century before some contemporary climatologists and ecologists starting grandstanding and crowing about human-induced “global warming” and possible consequent modifications of vegetation. Guadalupe County, New Mexico. July. SRM 707 (Blue Grama-Sideoats Grama-Black Grama) X SRM 412 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodlands) combination. No single FRES or Kuchler designation describes this cover type which probably covered more land than the Juniper-Pinyon Woodland Ecosystem (FRES No. 35), K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland) presented immediately below. The vegetation seen here, which again is probably representative of most of the pre-Columbian plant communities that included these conifers as associates, would be best categorized as FRES No. 38 (Plains Grasslands Ecosystem), Kuchler-58 (Gramagrass-Buffalograss), with overstory elements of FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Woodland [or Shrubland] Ecosystem), K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). Mixed grama-juniper association of New Mexico Natural Heritage Program (authors not shown; undated). Southwestern Tablelands- Central New Mexico Plains Ecoregion, 26o (Omernik and Griffith, 2006).

2.Pinyon pine- juniper woodland- The highest reaches of the Upper Sonoran life zone or perhaps the Transition life zone in the Capitan Mountains of southern New Mexico support this textbook example of the pinyon pine-juniper woodland. This stand on a northeast slope is probably the climax vegetation and not the woody invasion of a deteriorated mountain grassland range. In addition to pinyon pine and one-seed juniper, alligator juniper (Juniperus deppeana), Gambel oak, and an occasional ponderosa pine "round out" a woodland community with a sparse understory of short- and mid-grasses. Lincoln County, New Mexico. June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodlands); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper). Brown et al. (1998) recognized a pinyon-juniper woodland climax only in the Great Basin biotic province hence: Piyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community.Pinyon-Juniper Series of New Mexico Natural Heritage Program (authors not shown; undated). Arizona/New Mexico Mountains- Madrean Lower Montane Woodlands Ecoeregion,, 23b (Omernik and Griffith, 2003).

3. Interior and soil profile of a pinyon pine-juniper woodland community here dominated by the pinyon pine as a consociation— A few one-seeded junipers are scattered throughout. Lincoln County, New Mexico. June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodlands); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper) . Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Pinyon-Juniper Series of New Mexico Natural Heritage Program (authors not shown; undated). Arizona/New Mexico Mountains- Madrean Lower Montane Woodlands Ecoeregion,, 23b (Omernik and Griffith, 2003).

4. The classic pinyon-juniper zone of the Intermountain West— In addition to the pinyon pine, Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) is the co-dominant conifer.Rocky Mountain juniper (J. scopulorum) is a minor but well- represented member of this community.The conspicuous light-green deciduous trees are Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum). Grasslands and/or shrublands often occur interspersed among P-J woodlands as seen here. The rimrock land form is a picturesque feature of Basin and Range and Rocky Mountain physiographic provinces as here in the Wasatch Range. Transition life zone of C. Hart Merriam. Cache National Forest, Cache County, Utah. July. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 412 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wasatch and Unita Mountains- Semiarid Foothills Ecoregion, 19f (Woods et al., 2001).

5. Interior of P-J woodland seen in the previous scene— Understory grasses include blue grama, Indian ricegrass, western wheatgrass, galleta, and muhleys (Muhlenbergia spp.). Cache National Forest. Cache County, Utah. July. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper- Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 412 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wasatch and Unita Mountains- Semiarid Foothills Ecoregion, 19f (Woods et al., 2001).

6. Edge of the P-J woodland and adjoining grassland seen in two preceding shots— Rocky Mountain maple is conspicuous. In addition to forbs, herbs include the dominant grasses blue grama, bluebunch and western wheatgrassses, and galleta. Cache National Forest. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper- Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 412 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wasatch and Unita Mountains- Semiarid Foothills Ecoregion, 19f (Woods et al., 2001).

7. The co-dominants of the Intermountain P-J woodland type: pinyon pine (l.) and Utah juniper (r.). Big sagebrush dominates the understory but western wheatgrass and blue grama also are well-represented. The three main layers of this range type are obvious. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper- Pinyon Pine Woodland). SRM 412 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland); SAF 239 (Pinyon-Juniper). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

8.  Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) woodland- This is probably climax (potential natural) vegetation. On this shallow, rock outcrop slope there is likely not enough fuel in the herbaceous understory to carry fire hot enough to crown out and kill the juniper. Dominant understory species is little ricegrass (Oryzopsis micrantha). Mountain big sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata var. vaseyana) dominates an intermediate woody (shrub) layer having mountain mahogany and skunkbush sumac as associate species. Pfister et al. (1977, p. 123) interpreted such pure  stands of J. scopulorum as “a northern extension of the Great Basin ‘pinyon/juniper’ zone”.  FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland [Woodland] Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 220 (Rocky Mountain Juniper). No SRM really fits. Brown et al. (1998) recognized a pinyon-juniper woodland (series, fifth level) only for Great Basin. Soil Conservation Service mapping unit #50 for Foothills and Mountains in Montana, Rocky Mountain Juniper and Limber Pine on Shallow Soils (Frigid Temperature Regime) range site (Huntrer and Ross, 1976, p. 31). Jeffrson County, Montana. June. Middle Rockies- Elkhorn Mountains-Boulder Batholith Ecoregion, 17ai (McGrath et al. 2001).

9.  Rocky Mountain cedar or juniper woodland- The large size and “old-age” appearance of trunks of these conifers suggest that they (or at least a high portion of them) predate the understandable but misdirected fire exclusion policy of the white man. As noted in the preceding panoramic view, sparsity of ground cover of the native little ricegrass suggest that fire of severity (especially intensity and frequency) enough to reduce or eliminate juniper cover is unlikely. Conversely, the shrub layer of scattered mountain big sagebrush, mountain mahogany, and skunkbush sumac could fuel hot fires. Either way, however, the Rocky Mountain juniper/little ricegrass community was interpreted on the Montana Pre-settlement Vegetation Classification Outline (Montana Natural Heritage Program, 1988) as a “plant association” which “implies a climax type”. Clements (1920, ps. 197-199) recognized a Pinus-Juniperus Association  (the Clementsian association was of course climax). He noted that J. scoplorum had the most northern distribution and was the least xeric of western Juniperus species and that it “usually makes its best growth in moist canyons” (Clements, 1920, p. 199). The preference for this habitat is seen clearly in this photograph. This Rocky Mountain juniper community was treated herein as a climax range type and not as a seral stage of woody invasion indicating range retrogression, but it must be emphasized that seemingly limitless research findings clearly show that the J-P Woodland Type has expanded greatly since the white man frontier and settlement periods. See for example the many symposia, field day and technical reports, etc. devoted (perhaps all out of proportion to relative importance) to this range cover type (eg. Aldon and Springfield, 1973; Utah State University, 1975; Springfield, 1976; Martin et al., 1978; Tueller et al., 1979; Everett, 1987; Oregon state University and Agricultural Research Service, 1999; Society for Range Management, 2000). The expansion of juniper-pinyon woodlands that can be traced to human mismanagement through overgrazing, fire exclusion, farming activities, commercial traffic, etc. is range deterioration. In this ecological state of severe departure from potential natural vegetation proper management of natural resources must include— first of all— control of the existing juniper-pinyon brush problem and prevention of further invasion/expansion of these species at populations that constitute range deterioration and create noxious range plant problems. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland [Woodland] Ecosystem). K- 21(Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 220 (Rocky Mountain Juniper). Soil Conservation Service mapping unit #50 for Foothills and Mountains in Montana, Rocky Mountain Juniper and Limber Pine on Shallow Soil (Frigid Temperature Regime) (Hunter and Ross, 1976, p. 31). Jefferson County, Montana. June. Middle Rockies- Elkhorn Mountains-Boulder Batholith Ecoregion, 17ai (McGrath et al. 2001).

10.  Rocky Mountain cedar (= Rocky Mountain juniper)- Dinosaur National Monument, Unita County, Utah. June.

11. Leader with fleshy seeds of Rocky Mountain juniper- Dinosaur National Monument, Unita County, Utah. June.

12. Mountain big sagebrush- Jefferson County, Montana. June.

13. Leader tips of mountain big sagebrush- Jefferson County, Montana. June.

14. Little ricegrass- Jefferson County, Montana. June.

Western Juniper Savanna

Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) woodland (actually, savanna)- The next five photographs were the first of a set of a set that provided viewers with a textbook example of pristine potential natural vegetation of a western juniper-dominated (at least, defining) range plant community. This was the savanna form of a western juniper woodland designated and described by Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 163-167) as the Juniperus occidentalis zone that they interpreted as "the northwestern representation of the Pinyon-Juniper zone" of the Great Basin and that "is generally a savanna zone" (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 163). This range vegetation was in the Harney section of the Columbia Plateau physiographic province (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 237, 272-273) that corresponded closely with the High Lava Plains physiographic and geologic province of Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, ps. 6, 32-34). This savanna vegetation consisted of local plant communities with varying density and cover of western juniper, big sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata), low sagebrush (A. arbuscula), rabbitbrush (mostly Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), Junegrass (Koeleria ciristata), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda= P. sandbergia), squirrettail bottlebrush (Sitanion hystrix), and small amounts of Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), a more mesic and restricted species on these sites. For whatever reason(s) cheatgrass or downy brome (Bromus tectorum) was present only in trace amounts (almost absent). This paucity of cheatgrass might have been due to growing conditions in this particular year because cheatgrass was also present in only small amounts throughout much of the greater area in which this vegetation grew. Perennial grasses were well-represented and locally abundant (see photographs below.) A Pinus species was absent from this vegetation as is typical for the Juniperus ocidentalis Zone except in areas of the Pinus ponderosa-Juniperus occidentalis transition (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 164) where isolated ponderosa pine sometimes occur in western juniper savanna or woodland communities or western juniper mixed with ponderosa pine and Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) at higher elevations (Eyre, 1980, ps. 115-116). Vegetation of this conifer, shrub, bunchgrass savanna was NOT part of the Great Basin Desert. It was not even a northern "island" of the Great Basin Desert almost all of which is in the Basin and Range province described by Fenneman (1931). Politically correct-- and misleading-- names like Northern Great Basin Experimental Range (for the former Squaw Butte Experimental Range) notwithstanding, the examples presented below were not in the Basin and Range province. It should be emphasized here (and in the sections of Shrub Steppe, Grasslands, and Great Basin Desert, Shrublands) that major units of vegetation do not coincide perfectly with physiographic provinces. For example, "islands" of the Great Basin Desert extend north of the Basin and Range province. Again, however, vegetation shown here was not part of the Great Basin or Great Basin Desert. Rather, this Columbia Plateaus vegetation was ecotonal between ponderosa pine forest and the sagebrush (shrub)-bunchgrass steppe. Commonality of some species (eg. big sagebrush) to all these zonal vegetation units demonstrated the affinity among them. Climate of the western juniper savanna is semiarid with a summer typically dry enough to be viewed as a seasonal drought. Some range sites (eg. those dominated by low sagebrush) are functional "edaphic deserts" while other sites are moist, north slopes being a common example. There are numerous (at least 11) assocations and variants within the Juniperus occidentalis Zone, some of which were "interpreted as constituting topoedaphic climax associtions" (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 165). Some of these communities occur in close proximity to each other, at small (almost microsite) scale, and without obvious ecotones among them. (Examples were presented below.) One of the most widespread, long-term, and serious brush (noxious woody plants) invasion problems on the Western Range Region of North America has been the insidious development of natural pinyon-juniper (PJ) woodlands and savannas into unnatural forests (closed canopy PJ communities) that eventually exclude most of the other native species, often including even the sagebrush species. Like all brush problems this is a complex ecological and managerial problem with multiple causes including-- in no order of importance-- overgrazing, underburning, urban sprawl, commercial and transportation, mining, and, likely, substantive climatic shifts of unknown origin(s). This horrendious brush problem (actually it is many problems in several regions) extends from the Columbia Plateau eastward into the Ozark Mountains with several Juniperus species creating noxious and unnatural afforestation problems. The increase in J. occidentalis is but one such problem. The first five photographs following immediately below were an example of a virgin and climax western juniper savanna range that was intended to serve as a "pictorial benchmark" of what such a native range community "should look like". This example was included to serve as a "point of departure". Vegetation differing greatly from the physiognomy, species composition, structure, etc. of this climax western juniper-big sagebrush-bunchgrass savanna (depending of course on range site) is some degree of retrogression, that is some state of range deterioration (= range depletion). Most of this retrogression had as the major symptom-- if not the immediate major cause-- the phenomenal increase in cover and density of western juniper. This unnatural and likely human-caused increase of a native and highly desirable conifer far beyond that of proper management of the range resources remains-- in fact, is becoming a greater-- problem that threatens the integrity of this range ecosystem. Examples of such retrogression-- an ecological disaster in the offing-- were presented after introduction of the presumed state of virgin vegetation (or nearly so) for comparative purposes. Examples of depleted western juniper savanna or, perhaps even woodland, range that were due primarily to afforestation of grasslands, savannas, and woodlands by western juniper were followed by an example of elimination of the problem by fire. Take note, learn the lesson, and then apply it!

15. Climax western juniper savanna- The western juniper-defined range vegetation presented in this and the next four pohotgraphs exemplified some of the climax communities recognized by Franklin and Dyrness (1973, ps. 165-167). This and the immediately succeeding slide were the climatic climax community, the Juniperus/Artemesia/Agropyron association (Frankin and Dyrness,m 1973, p. 165). The overall or general dominant shrub was big sagebrush (usually Wyoming big sagebrush {A. tridentata sub. wyomingensis), but there small range sites ( often microsites) dominated by low sagebrush. In a similar pattern bluebunch wheatgrass (eg. green bunches in lower right corner) was the general dominant herb with local dominance of Junegrass or Sandberg bluegrass. Forbs were absent with composites being represented by shrubs (sagebrush and rabbitbrush). In this slide (and the rest of plant community scale slides below) physiognomy and structure of vegetation should be noted. This was the classic savanna pattern, of both trees and shrubs. Most western juniper were old-growth specimens (this characteristic was detailed below), but there was juniper regeneration adequate for maintenance of this defining species. Range vegetation shown in this photograph and the succeeding five photographs (all six taken at plant community scale) was an example of relict vegetation or simply a relict, "a remnant or fragment of the climax plant community that remains from a former period when it was more widely distributed" (Jacoby, 1989; Bedel, 1998). Relict vegetation is priceless for several purposes, but the relevant one in regard to range types and range sites is to serve as a reference with which to compare existing vegetation for purposes of determining ecological, successional, etc. status of the present vegetation. The relict serves as a reference area, an area in which "natural biological and physical porocesses are allowed to occur unhindered" such that "a standard is established against which the effects of human intervention in the natural environment can be evaluated" (Laycock, 1975, p.4). Reference areas can be 1) "fairly large aeas in climax, near-climax, original, or undisturbed ecological condition...", 2) "smaller areas protected from grazing by exclosures ...", or 3) "grazed areas that demonstrate the effects of a particuar type of range use" (Laycock, 1975, p. 4). The example shown here was an example of 1). This area had somehow been properly grazed by livestock or, as appeared to be the case, not grazed by other than native herbivores for a number of years. Students of Range Management should become familar with the concept and indispensible tool of range reference areas. The already cited reference (no pun intended) edited by Laycock (1975) was highly recommended. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June. Estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juiper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

16. Pristine western juniper savanna- The Juniperus/Artemesia/Agropyron climatic climax association of the Juniperus occidentalis Zone (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973. p. 165) was represented by this "picture-perfect" sample from the Harney section of the Columbia Plateau province. Bluebunch wheatgrass (the large individuals of bunchgrass) was in immediate pre-bloom phenological stage. Junegrass and Sandberg bluegrass sometimes grew among the pronounced cespitose bluebunch wheatgrass, but as could be seen this latter species typically formed large consociation patches of itself with the former two species segregated together where they were "left to their own devices" (right corner). There was some Wyoming big sagebrush and low sagebrush that characteristically grew seperately from each other. The pattern of low sagebrush-dominated vegetation occurring within larger communities dominated by western juniper was previously described (Barbour and Major, 1995, ps. 780, 799). Most of the western juniper were old-growth specimens (see photographs below). Forbs typically grow in this rangeland cover type (Shiflet, 1994, p. 6), but they were "conspicuous by their absence" from this sample of the range type. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June. Estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

17. Western juniper-sagebrush-bunchgrass savanna- Physiognomy, species composition, and structure of the climatic climax Juniperus/Artemesia/Agropyron association of the western juniper-defined savanna was presented in this "all-in-one shot". This range vegetation had developed on the Harney section of the Columbia Plateau province that corresponed with the High Lava Plains of Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 6). It appeared to have been a relict area that had not been exposed to domestic grazers for a number of years. The dominant herbaceouus species was bluebunch wheatgrass (most of the bunchgrass individuals) with Sandberg bluegrass and Junegrass as associates. Squirreltail bottlebrush was a "runner-up" species and, remarkable, cheatgrass was almost absent. Wyoming big sagebrush comprised most of the shrub layer with low sagebrush forming single-species stands at microsite scale scattered among the larger stands of big sagebrush. Green rabbitbrush was an occasional member of the range plant community (about like some students this photographer has been "blessed with") . Most western juniper were old-growth individuals (discussed below), but there was juniper regeneration sufficient to mnaintain this species as the defining plant of this vegettion that was identified and described as both a forest and a rangeland cover type. (Conifer regeneration was shown in a succeeding photograph.) Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June. Estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

18.Western juniper savanna- This view of pristine juniper-sagebrush-bunchgrass savanna (it was a tree-shrub savanna or a savanna with both tree and shrub components) caught two features. First it showed western juniper regeneration with two seedling junipers visible: one in left-center and one in right foreground. Secondly it showed the mosaic and scale of small range sites (actually, types) within the overall savanna community. A low sagebrush community (a rangeland cover type) was in foreground back to midground while a Wyoming big sagebrush community (a rangeland cover type) was in background. Bluebunch wheatgrass, the overall dominant herb, was limited to the latter cover type. This pattern of smaller-scale rangeland cover types within larger-scale rangeland types (SRM 403 and SRM 406 within general SRM 107) was similar to and, probably a reflection of, soil series mapping units within the larger soil association map unit). Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 165) described the arrangement of some Juniperus occidentalis-dominated communities "as constituting topoedaphic climax associations". Other workers described low sagebrush communities developing within larger or overall communites of western juniper (Barbour and Major, 1995, ps, 780, 799). Stocking and spatial distribution of western juniper had archtypical features of a savanna including that of juniper seedlings. This "big picture" view of a relict western juniper savanna showing physiognomy and structure of the type was placed last for relative ease of reference as the "benchmark" of virgin vegetation. This photograph (plus the preceding ones) should be compared to photographs presented below that showed the on-going formation of western juniper forests largely caused by such human mismanagement as fire exclusion. Burns District, Bureau of Land Managaement, Harney County, Oregon. June. Estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

19. Close-in view of western juniper savanna- Examples of old-growth western juniper and bluebunch wheatgrass with a small range site dominated by low sagebrush in left foreground. Bluebunch wheatgrass often grew more luxuriously in shade of big western juniper. Other grasses growing in frame of this photograph included Junegrass, Sandberg bluegrass, squirreltail bottlebrush, and "stray' plants of the introduced desert crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) in right background. Cheatgrass or downy brome was almost nonexistent. Absence of this naturalized Eurasian annual brome might have been partly result of growing conditions in this particular year. The dominant shrub was Wyoming big sagebrush, but it was absent from the small range sites dominated by low sagebrush. Green rabbitbrush was present but quite limited. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM.107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2994). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

20. Two old-growth western juniper amid a bunchgrass carpet (admittedly a mite threadbare by turf standards)- The climax Juniperus occidentalis Zone (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, ps. 163-167) occurs mostly in parts the Columbia Basin, High Lava Plains, and the Basin and Range physiogrphic and geologic provinces (Franklin andDyrness, 1973, p.6). These correspond primarily with the Columbia Plateau and Basin and Range physiographic provinces (Fenneman, 1931). Climate is semiarid with a summer largely devoid of precipitation. Some soils are so shallow, stoney, and poorly developed that some range sites are in effect "edaphic deserts". Even with these harsh habitats all but the most severe grow vegetation sufficient to carry surface fires of enough intensity and with adequate frequency to prevent survival of all but a few western juniper. Surviving junipers often live to relatively old age and develop features unique to old trees. Examples were shown in the next slides. Native bunchgrasses included the dominant bluebunchgrass, Junegrass, Sandberg bluegrass, squirreltail bottlebrush, and traces of Idaho fescue. There were even smaller amounts of the introduced and naturalized cheatgrass and desert crested wheatgrass. Shrubs included the overall dominant Wyoming big sagebrush and the microsite dominant low sagebrush. Green rabbitbrush was present but limited. Forbs were essentially missing. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland. SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004).

21.Old-growth western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis)- Two examples of very old western juniper showing: 1) charactristic growth form and 2) features of great age in this species. General growth form of western juniper is a relatively short trunk with several to numerous limbs (primary branches) radiating from the short and relatively thick bole. In some individuals limbs begin almost at soil surface, especially where protected from fire. Limbs are horizonal and trees develop widely spreading crowns that are often about the same dimension as tree height (ie. crown is about as wide as tree is tall). Old-growth western juniper have characteristics indicating (at least suggesting) a "long hard life". Broken limbs, gnarled trunks (often with scars from fire and other damaging agents), and a high proportion of dead branches in the crown are all indicators of trees having achieved great age for their species. Additionally some ancient specimens have dead spires where there had been a living apical leader (shoot) atop a younger tree. The juniper in the second photograph had such a spire. This feature is common in old trees of many species ranging from coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) to post oak (Quercus stellata). Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June.

22. Leader of western juniper- Terminal end of lower limb on western juniper with needles and fleshy seeds. These seeds are technically ovulate cones covered by fleshy scales. This unit (known informally as a "berry") is readily eaten by birds which then disseminate some of the seed to plant more juniper. It should be obvious to the observant student that given this abundant crop of propagules something will have to reduce populations of Juniperus seedlings or savannas like the one featured here will become juniper forests. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June.

23. Robust individual of bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum)- This native, perennial, cespitose, festucoid grass is a dominant species across much of the Northern Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Regions. It can attain fairly large size for a grass species under semiarid conditions (this specimen was almost a yard in height). It is palatable and readily decreases under improper management like overgrazing. This individual was growing on the relict range featured in this portion of the pinyon-juniper section. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June..

24. Junegrass (Koeleria cirstata)- Whole shoot portion of plant and inflorescence of Junegrass growing as an associate grass species on the western juniper-Wyoming big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass savanna range featured above. This specimen was a next-door neighbor to bluebunch wheatgrass. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June.

25. Degradation of the range- Two examples of western juniper-big sagebrush-bunchgrass vegetation for which the climax or potential natural plant community is a savanna of these species, but which are in the process of becoming more of western juniper forests. Young age of most western juniper in these range plant communities was obvious from the size and shape of trees (compare these to the old-growth juniper presented above). Relatively large numbers of juniper seedlings were present in both or these range communities. Grass cover and density were obviously lower than in the relict western juniper-Wyoming big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass savanna shown previously, but species composition was quite similar. Even the pattern of range sites, including those smaller ones dominated by low sagebrush, was about the same in all of these samples of range vegetation except for the manyfold increase in juniper stocking and cover. Both this and the relict vegetation shown above were in the Juniperus occidentalis Zone in the High Lava Plains province of southcentral Oregon (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, ps. 6, 163-167). Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

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26. Overgrazing was not the problem; underburning was- At advancing edge of encroaching western juniper was a local dense stand of basin wildrye (Elymus cinereus). This native species is very productive (largest plants and highest biomass yield of any Gramineae species in this region), but it is also one of the grasses most susceptible to abusive grazing. Presence of basin wildrye was evidence that this range was not being overgrazed and had not been abused any time in recent past. No, logically grazing was not the reason for this example of afforestation, "the establishment of a forest or stand in an area where the preceding vegetation or land use was not forest" (Helms, 1998). The most rational explanation, the likely cause, of this brush invasion was lack of fire. You doubt it? Stay tuned. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. High Lava Plains province (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 6) June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). SAF 238 (Western Juniper). SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- High Lava Plains Ecoregion, 80g (Thorson et al., 2003).

27. Landscape-scale view of the western juniper brush problem- In this small landscape view of a western juniper-big sagebrush-western wheatgrass savanna western juniper was increasing rapidly. Most of the small drainages had juniper seedlings lining their channels. Increased regeneration was evident with most of the larger--though still young by old-growth standards-- juniper having seedlings beneath their drip lines (see for eg. the seedling at right base of juniper with shaded cattle). Abusive grazing was not the problem here either. Degree of use on bluebunch wheatgrass, the native dominant of the climax vegetation, was relatively light and bluebunch wheatgrass was the dominant herbaceous species. Improper grazing had obviously not been a problem for quite some time. Improper grazing management had certainly not been a problem during the relatively young life of juniper seedlings and young saplings! Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. Owyhee Upland province versus High Lava Plains province (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 6) from where preceding photographs were taken. June. This range vegetation was most likely a combination of two major range types or perhaps designation depended on fire regimen (see below). Probably most precisely this range plant community was: FRES No. 35 (Sagebrush Shrubland Ecosystem), K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), SRM 314 (Big Sagebrush-BluebunchWheatgrass). Range vegetation at higher elevations in the Owyhee Upland province has greater affinity with vegetation in the Palouse Prairie or even Rocky Mountains than with vegetation in the Basin and Range province such that SRM 403 (Wyoming Big Sagebrush) was less descriptive and accurate. For purposes of comparison with preceding examples of western juniper-defining vegetation the range vegetation shown here could be conveniently designated as FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Shrubland Ecosystem), K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland), SAF 238 (Western Juniper), SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- Dissected High Lava Plateau Ecoregion, 80a (Thorson et al., 2003).

28. Advance of the enemy: brush invasion- Western juniper has come over the hill and is invading a big sagebrush-bunchgrass shrub steppe. These were young western juniper as can be seen from their relative small size and conical shape in contrast to the spreading crowns of old-growth juniper presented above. Many of the western juniper were seedlings (note the juniper seedling in center foreground). This landscape in the Owyhee Upland province consisted of several range sites the overall range type (or range subtype) of which was the Artemesia tridentata/Agropyron spicatum association that was interpreted as the climatic climax of both the Owyhee Upland and High Lava Plains provinces (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, ps. 234-237). In the potential natural vegetation of this association western juniper is only an occasional component. On most of the land shown here (the general range environment in the foreground) climax range vegetation is a big sagebrush shrub-steppe with bluebunch wheatgrass as the dominant herbaceous species and Thurber's needlegrass (Stipa thurberiana) as associate. At climax (natural potential) Idaho fescue grows on more mesic microsites with Sandberg bluegrass, Junegrass, and squirreltail bottlebrush on the more xeric local environments. Big sagebrush forms a discontinuous shrub layer in the general spatial pattern of a savanna. The climax vegetation for the east-facing slope in the background was a western juniper-big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass savanna like that presented at beginning of this treatment of western juniper-defined range types. In other words, the potential natural vegetation for the range in the foreground of this landscape was (is) a shrub-bunchgrass savanna not a tree-shrub-grass savanna (not a western juniper-big sagebrush-bunchgrass savanna like those shown previously in this section). The climax of the foreground range most certainly was (is) not a western juniper woodland like the one that had developed on the east slope in the background. Climax for the east slope was western juniper-big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass savanna, but the savanna had become a woodland and was in process of becoming a western juniper forest as young trees continue to grow and juniper reproduction increases toward a closed conifer canopy. Afforestation of the east-slope savanna vegetation was like that shown in photographs above. This unnatural increase in western juniper stocking (increase in density and cover) was retrogression of the sere, retrograde development of the plant community. This was a form of range degradation due to brush (noxious woody range plants) invasion. The great increase in western juniper, a native climax conifer, beyond its natural potential had become the major threat to the native plant community and to rangeland health, "the degree to which the integrity of the soil, the vegetation, the water, and air as well as the ecological processes of the rangeland ecosystem is balanced and sustained" and in which "intergrity" is defined as "maintenance of the structure and functional attributes characteristic of a particular locale" (Bedell, 1998). Invasion by and increase of western juniper was the onset of decline in range health in the parlance of newer terminology and concepts in Range Science. In traditional usage and application, brush invasion was causing a continuing decline in range trend (= range condition trend), "the direction of change in range condition" where range condition is "the current productivity of a range relative to what that range is naturally capable of producing" (Kothmann, 1976) or range trend is "the direction of change in ecological status or resource value rating observed over time" (Jacoby, 1989). The two definitions of range trend said the same thing because range condition is the ecological status of the range based on successional status of the plant community, soil conditions, etc. Technical note: use of scientific terms requires their proper use and careful definition. Invasion in this context was applied in the strict and classical sense as used in such disciplines as Plant Ecology and professions like Range Management and Forestry. The seminal definition of invasion: "Invasion is the movement of one or more plants from one area into another and their establishment in the latter. It is thus the complete and complx process of which migration, ecesis, and competition are the essential parts." (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 166). Invasion was defined by the Society for Range Management as "the migration of organisms from one area to another area and the establishment in the latter" (Kothman, 1976; Jacoby, 1989; Bedell, 1998). The Society of American Foresters did not include "invasion" in recent glossaries but provided this definition in an earlier edition: "the encroachment of new species as dominants in an area or region" (Hawley, 1950). All of these capture the essence of western juniper invasion in both western juniper savanna or sagebrush-bunchgrass steppe. In the shrub-steppe western juniper is a "new species". Transformation of a savanna into a forest fits the spirit of the Hawley (1950) definition.Clearly, all unnatural increases of western juniper regardless of range type or site fit the original Clementsian usage. Consistent with precise usage of invasion in regard to recent increases in western juniper is the designation of this species as a brush (noxious woody plant) species. Occurrence of western juniper at abnormally high density and cover has become a major brush problem. Western juniper invasion posses a major threat to sustainability and intergrity of range ecosystems and landscapes. Under such conditions western juniper is a woody weed or weed tree. Control of this noxious range plant should be a major goal across millions of acres of range, on both private and public land. To control western juniper as a brush species is to reduce density and cover of this native and highly desired conifer to density and cover similar to that in the potential natural vegetation. If reduction to quantities estimated in the pre-Columbian or climax vegetation is not a realistic management objective, then practical goals should be established and brush management initiated to achieve reasonable levels in reduction (= control) of western juniper. One effective way to control western juniper is the use of prescribed fire. Prescribed fire for juniper control was beyond scope of this publication, but examples were included immediately below to illustrate the effectiveness of fire (in this instance below, wild fire) in control of western juniper when it was a brush species. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. June. This range vegetation was in the Owyhee Upland province versus the High Lava Plains province where preceding examples of the western juniper cover type were from. Thre were two range cover types in this landscape. Foreground: FRES No. 29 (Sagebrush Ecosystem), K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), SRM 314 (Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass) as more of the Palouse Prairie or Rocky Mountain form than of SRM 403 (Big Sagebrush), the Great Basin form. This vegetation was in the Owyhee Upland province, higher elevations of which have greater affinity with western islands of the Palouse Prairie to the east and north than with the Great Basin Sagebrush Desert of the Basin and Range province to the south and west. Refer to the description and discussion of western Palouse Prairie by Weaver and Albertson (1956 , ps. 339-340). Background (hill vegetation): FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem), K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland), SAF 238 (Western Juniper), SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan (2004). Northern Basin and Range- Dissected High Lava Plateau Ecoregion, 80a (Thorson et al., 2003).

29.Fire line contrast (You choose: left or right.)- Still doubt the effectiveness of fire as a way to control western juniper invasion? Take a gander at this unintentional "success story". This hillside became an accidental experimental range when a wild fire burnt part of it off. The burnt portion (foreground and right side in both photographs) became an unplanned burn treatment while the unburnt portion (left side beginning in midground in both photographs) became the experimental control.. The was another-- and again, unplanned-- control plot. This was the vegetation in the landscape-scale photograph shown in the immediately preceding slide (a big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass savanna range invaded by wesstern juniper). Range vegetation in this landscape-scale slide was in the same pasture as the unburned-burned fire line contrast shown in the two slides of this caption. Only a two-lane highway separated the side-by-side, burned-unburned part of the range from the all-unburned portion shown in the preceding slide. Both of the control (unburned) plots and the burned plot were parts of the same range (pasture). The unburnt landscape presented in the preceding slide and the side-by-side, burnt-unburnt hillside presented in these two slides were located immediately across the highway from each other. There was no fence separating them. Cattle grazing this public-land range moved freely from one side of the highway to the other and from the burned and unburned portions, and all of this range was being grazed by cattle in the current growing season. Stocking rate was low enough that cattle had not (were not) overusing the burnt portion (as was obvious from the height of bluebunch wheatgrass in the burnt foreground in both of the photographs above this caption). The grass component of this community (both burnt and unburnt portions) was a consociation of bluebunch wheatgrass. There were occasional individuals of Junegrass, Sandberg bluegrass, squirreltail bottlebrush, needle-and-thread (Stipa comata), and, least common, Idaho fescue. Remarkably there was almost no cheatgrass (= downy brome). Forbs were also very limited. The wild fire had eliminated the big sagebrush as well as western juniper. Fire converted the tree-shrub-bunchgrass savanna to a bunchgrass steppe. Three cheers for the fire! Sagebrush will likely come back from soil seedbank sources and the adjacent unburned area. This brings up the obvious question: "Why did the government fire-fighters put out the fire before it burnt across the whole range?" This would have included gettting a good head fire running up-slope that would have taken out many of the western juniper on the hill shown in the preceding photograph. The only thing bad about this fire from a range management standpoint was that it was stopped too soon. Burns District, Bureau of Land Management, Harney County, Oregon. Strictly speaking this range was in the Owyhee Upland province so that potential natural vegetation was: FRES No. 29 (Sagebrush Ecosystem), K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), SRM 314 (Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass) as more of the Palouse Prairie or even Rocky Mountain form than of SRM 403 (Wyoming Big Sagebrush), the Great Basin form or cover type. Potential natural vegetation at hill tops (rimrock) was western juniper savanna as described previously. This example was used for purposes of comparison to the previously presented FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper), K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland), SRM 107 (Western Juniper-Big Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass). Pinyon-Juniper Series in Great Basin Conifer Woodland biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Western ju;niper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass association of Kagan et al. (2004). Northern Basin and Range- Dissected High Lava Plateau Ecoregion, 80a (Thorson et al., 2003). Range photographers and professors have to take their lessons where they find them and make adjustments as dictated by circumstances. The lessons came from the land and are still relevant to its management.

Southwestern Pinyon Pine-Juniper Woodland

One of the most biologically diverse (and beautiful) forms of the pinyon pine-juniper woodland is the oak-pinyon pine-juniper woodland. There is great species diversity in the tree, shrub, and herbaceous layers of this southwestern North American range woodland. One of the best geographic locations for this range vegetation is in the Big Bend area of west Texas and northern Chihuhua where floristic elements from the Rio Grande Plains, Edwards Plateau, Southern Great Plains, and Chihuhuan and Trans-Pecos Basin and Range "blend" to produce an amazingly varied and colorful array of range plants in turn responsible for a remarkable development of this range cover type. The mixed oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland begins in mountain foothills above basins and bajadas of Chihuhuan Desert and lower foothills of various zonal grassland communities. There are various range cover types of Chihuhuan Desert and semidesert (Chihuhuan) grasslands below (ie. "down the mountain and out on the flats") the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper montane woodland. These lower, more xeric range types were covered in this publication under Chihuhuan Desert (Shrublands) and semidesert grasslands (Grasslands). Arguably one of the most accessable examples of the oak-pinyon pine-juniper woodland range type is in the Chisos Mountains. The following set of photographs was taken from Green Gulch in the Chisos Range. Enjoy the scenery. The first two photographs in this set were landscape-scale views that displayed the physiography of the Chisos Mountains and the physiogonomy, structure, and general composition of their range vegetation.

103. Oak-pinyon pine-juniper montane woodland in the Basin and Range- Deep in the core of the Chisos Mountains a tremendously varied montane range plant community had developed consisting of several layers of vegetation: 1) tree, 2) shrubs that typically formed two layers, and 3) herbaceous plants consisting of tall-, mid-, and shortgrass species as well as forbs. Even the tree layer of this woodland range was more complex than might be expected due to presence of mistletoe as a parasitic epiphyte. Coniferous tree species included Mexican pinyon pine (Pinus cembroides), the ultimate climax conifer, alligator juniper (Juniperus deppeana), redberry or Pinchot juniper (J. pinchotii), rose-fruit juniper (J. erythrocarpa), and, less commonly, weeping or drooping juniper (J. flaccida). Woody angiosperm species which included some individuals of tree shape and size were mostly Emory oak (Quercus emoryi) and gray oak (Q. grisea). These were common trees within the photographic view shown here. Other oaks in the Chisos that attain tree deminsions and shape yet which were not observed within field of this photograph included Chisos red or Graves oak (Q. gravesii= Q. chesosensis), chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii), and netleaf oak (Q. rugosa). Uncommon to rare species of oaks that have tree form in the Chisos ncluded Chisos oak (Q. graciliformis) and lateleaf oak (Q. tardifolia). Common scrub oak species scattered throughout the range vegetation presented here included gray oak and netleaf oak (two of several oak species having individual plants that grow in either tree or shrub form) and Vasey shin oak (Q. vaseyana= Qpungens var. vaseyana= Q. undulata var. vaseyana). An uncommon but extremely conspicuous tree species was Texas madrone or naked Indian or lady's leg (Arbutus texana) of the Ericaceae, heath or heather family. Other angiosperm species on this woodland range that usually have shrub shape and size but sometimes attain tree form or size present included three sumac species: lanceleaf sumac (Rhus lanceolata= R. copallina var. lanceolata), evergreen or tobacco sumac (Rhus virens subsp. virens), and littleleaf sumac (Rhus microphylla). One of the most common angiosperm shrubs was golden or yellow currant (Ribes aureum). The most conspicuous shrubs in many spots were the succulent or succulent-like species including various pricklypear cactii (mostly Opuntia englemannii), smooth sotol (Dasylirion leiphyllum), and lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla). Grasses were all native perennial species with Eurasian cool-season annuals like cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) present at trace amounts. Little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius= Schizachyrium scoparium) and cane bluesteem (A. barbinodis= Bothriochloa barbinodis) were grass species of largest mature size. Little bluestem was interpreted as a tallgrass species. Sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) was the dominant mid-grass species. Chino grama or chinograss (B. ramosa) was the most abundant grass, but cumulative foliar cover of this species was locally less than that of larger-growing species including cane bluestem and sideoats grama. Chino grama was viewed as a shortgrass species of which grass group it was dominant. Other Bouteloua species included blue grama (B. gracilis), hairy grama (B. hirsuta), and, very infrequently, red grama (B. trifida). Threeawn species were also common (and always the taxonomic nightmare) with red threeawn (Aristida longistea= A. purpurea var. longiseta) the major member of this taxon. Mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana) was found rarely (and always in battered condition). Overall there was no dominant grass species. Forbs were inconsequential at the early summer season shown in these photographs. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak varaint of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

104. Climax vegetation of an oak-pinyon pine-juniper woodland- Foothills of Chisos Mountains and an almost unbelieveable array of range plants in another panaramic view of Chihuhuan or Madrean montane woodland.. The two tallest trees in midground were Mexican pinyon pine. This species has usually been interpreted as the potential natural dominant gymnosperm of this range cover type. Associate coniferous species are the various Juniperus species listed above. The two junipers in the foreground of this slide were redberry or Pinchot juniper. Shrub in right foreground (right corner of photograph) was gray oak. Smooth sotol was also present. Grasses included sideoats and chino grama and cane bluestem. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June, early estival aspect (prior to onset of main summer rains and most grass "green-up"). FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al, 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodland Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

105. Inside Chisos Mountain montane woodland range- Details of oak-pinyon pine-juniper woodland vegetation inside a mountain range in the Trans-Pecos Basin and Range. In this "photo-plot" there was a stand of Mexican pinyon pine with a predominantly shrub understorey sotol, pricklypear, gray oak, and golden currant. There were some Pinchot or red berry junipers (eg. needles of one in right foreground). Chino and sideoats gramas were main grasses. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodland Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

106. Chisos Mountains montane range- A detailed view inside the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper montane woodland. Taller conifers (eg. three in midground) were Mexican pinyon pine. Shrub in right foreground was a much-brancned redberry or Pincot junipe. According to Powell (1988ps. 38-41) redberry and rose-fruit juniper integrade to the extent that there may be a J. pinchotti X J. erythrocarpa hybrid in the Chisos Mountain Basin. Sotol, including a prominently blooming specimen, was a dominant shrub in mid foreground. Pricklypear was another prominent shrub. Major grasses visible were little and cane bluestems. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

107. Chisos Mountains montane woodland range at its pinnacle- Textbook view of vegetation of mixed oak-Mexican pinyon pine-mixed juniper woodland. Three coniferous trees in center (large mature one flanked by two small ones) was Mexican pinyon pine. These in turn flanked by either redberry juniper or rose-fruit juniper (these two species are very difficult to tell apart). Grass species in foreground were cane and little bluestem, sideoats grama, and red threeawn. Sotol also visible, including flower stalk of one in left foreground. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

108, Cool sweep of Chisos Mountains vegetation- First-timers to these hills find it "hard to imagine" that the Chihuan Desert lies less than 2000 feet below these densely wooded Chisos Mountains (and with an array of distinctive zones of grassland vegetation in between), and that such differences in range vegetation are largely a function of elevation and other abiotic factors associated with elevational gradations. Range vegetation shown here was a mixed oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland. This was a climax plant community with a prominent physiogonomy, rich species composition, and complex structure. Major grass species in this "photo-transect" included cane bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, chino grama, and red threeawn. The conspicuous shrubs in foreground were gray oak of characteristic coloration. Larger trees that were visible in the far foreground were Mexican pinyon pine, alligator juniper, Emory oak, and Texas madrone. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 ((Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 ((Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

109. Montane browse above the Chihuhuan Desert- Another landscape-scale photograph of the Chisos Mountains with mixed oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper montane woodland. This panoramic view featured details of the browse layer of this range cover type. Shrub species in the foreground included (roughly left to right allowing for intermixing of branches) golden currant, smooth sotol, littleleaf sumac, evergreen sumac, gray oak, and Emory oak. The large tree was Emory oak. Primarily redberry or Pinchot juniper, rose-fruit juniper, and gray oak in basin of background. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Wooodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper).Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

110. Rangeman's picture postcard of Chisos Mountain range- At the base of a mountain slope topped with Casa Grande was an all-in-one shot of the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland range type followed by a second slide showing overall species compostion and structure of this montane vegetation. Tallest tree at far left of both photographs was Mexican pinyon pine. Immediately to the right of the pine was an Emory oak with gary oak to its right. Alligator juniper, redberry juniper, rose-fruit juniper, and Texas madrone were the other major trees higher up on the mountain side. In the foreground the understorey was mostly herbaceous with red threeawn the dominant species. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were nosing around in this rank-growing grass, perhaps looking for acorns or pine 'nuts". Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series 123.32 of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

111. The dry side and after a fire- "Just around the corner" from the location of the two immediately preceding slides the range vegetation took on this drastic difference in physiogonomy and species composition. Obviously a fire had modified this vegetation in the not-too-distant past. While the fire "opened up" this range plant community it was probably the xeric, predominately west slope that was responsible for a grass-scrub savanna variant form of the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland type. The centerpiece showy succulent was Havard agave (Agave havardiana) which was, as if on cue, at full-bloom, and already starting to die as it was fulfilling its once-in-a-lifetime role to reproduce sexually therby giving its species another opportunity for natural selection. Red-fruited shrub in right foreground was littleleaf sumac. Top-killed and resprouting tree at far left foreground was Emory oak. Shrub to left front of agave was redberry juniper which had also been top-killed and subsequently resprouted. Redberry or Pinchot juniper is one of the very few Juniperus species to resprout, a rare characteristic of conifers. The largest tree (directly behind agave) on the slope was a drooping or weeping juniper. This plant was not bearing cones, but even from a distance the descending, dead, outer branches (undoubedly fire-killed) gave this species away as far as it could be seen. This Juniperus species does not resprout, but this particular tree had attained size enough to withstand-- minus portions of some outer branches-- the heat of what was likely an upslope, hot, heading fire. Predominate grasses were little bluestem, cane bluestem, and sideoats grama. Casa Grande crowned the spectacle. Chisos Basin, Big Bend National Park. June. FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper -Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak -Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004)..

112. Chisos Basin range- Range vegetation in Chisos Basin. The rich flora of climax oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland was on display in this view across the Chisos Basin of the Chisos Mountains. Center conifer was Mexican pinyon, the climax dominant gymnosperm. Two Havard agaves in full-bloom "accompanied" the pine. The shrub in center foreground was of the Emory oak scrub form. Grasses included sideoats grama, cane bluestem, red threeawn, and chino grama. Chisos Basin, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas June, early estival aspect. ,FRES No. 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRN 504 (Juniper- Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series, 123.32, of Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24d (Griffith et al., 2004).

113. Range vegetation of Chisos Basin- Detail of range plants in Chisos Basin. A mixture of herbaceous and woody range plants were easily identified in this photograph. Englemann pricklypear and smooth sotol were in left and right foreground. Sideoats grama, a decreaser and the climax dominant on this location, was in center foreground. Other major grass species included cane bluestem, chino grama, and red threeawn. Shrubs of gray oak were in center midground. Foremost conifer (rounded crownin right midground was redberry or Pinchot juniper. Conifer behind and to left of juniper was a young Mexican pinyon pine. and shrubs. There were not many forbs growing at the early summer season at time of this photograph. As to be expected most forbs were composites. Most of the dead shoots of forbs were cool-season annuals of the Umbelliferaeh Chisos Basin, Big Bend Natioal Park, Brewswter County, Tesas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No., 35 (Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem). K-21 (Juniper-Pinyon Woodland). Oak variant of SRM 504 (Juniper-Pinyon Pine Woodland). SAF 239 (Pinyon - Juniper). Oak-Pine Series123.32, oif Madrean Evergreen Forest and Woodland, 123.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Chihuhuan Deserts- Chihuhuan Montane Woodlands Ecoregion 24 d (Griffith et al., 2004).

114. Smooth sotol or desert candle (Dasylirion leiophyllum)- Full-bloom stage in smooth sotol on a range of the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland type. Green Gulch,.Big Bend National Park, Brewster county, Teaas, June.

115. Inflorescence of smooth sotol or desert candle- Bureau of Land Magement Valley of Fire Recreational Area, Lincoln County, New Mexico. June.

116. Immature fruit of smooth sotol- A flowering-fruiting stalk of smooth sotol with an abundance of immature fruit. The Dasylirion species are dioecious so this was a pregnant girl plant. According to Powell (1988, p. 70) smooth sotol is the most common Dasylirion species in the Trans-Pecos Basin and Range area. Presidio County, Texas. June.

61. Lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla)- This is probably the most abundant Agave species in the Trans-Pecos Basin and Range area. In fact, lechuguilla "has one of the most extensive ranges of the agaves" (Gentry, 1982, p. 154). Lechuguilla is also one of the most easily identified (usually recognized immediately) by the high number of rosettes growing in clusters or groups. A. lechuguilla is a highly modular organism. Each of the basal rosettes is a module (a clone= ramet) of a genetic indivisual (genet). Most reproduction is asexual via suckering from rhizomes or rhizome-like structures (ie. "rootstocks"). Gentry (1982, p. 154) stated that numbers of rosettes "probably exceed those of all other native agaves". Gentry (1982, ps. 30-31) described the Agave rosette. Incidentally this wonderful book, Agaves of Continental North America, (Gentry, 1982) is the encyclopedia and definitive reference by the man regarded as the world expert on Agave. Expensive, but well worth the price to any succulent-lover. Lechuguilla is a poisonous range plant that has been documented to poison cattle, sheep, and goats, and--no surprise--this poisoning takes place under conditions of overgrazing. Gentry (1982, p. 157) delightfully described such mismanagement concluding that lechuguilla is "a protective agent of the range, penalizing those stockmen who, through force of circumstance or lack of foresight, decimate their resource by over-use". AMEN! The poisonous principle in lechuguilla is a saponin that causes hepatogenic or secondary photosensitization due to liver damage. References include Kingsbury (1964, ps. 56, 467-468), Sperry et al. (1964, ps. 7-8), Burrows and Tyrl 2001, 13-15), and Hart et al. (2003, 22-23). Taxonomic treatment of Agave has been controversial. Traditionally the genus has been included in the agave family, Agavaceae, (eg. Powell, 1988), but other workers (eg. Smith, 1977) placed Agave in the lily family, Liliaceae, as an agave subfamily, Agavoideae. Incidentally, is there anything that is not controversial when it comes to plant taxonomic treatments? Hudspeth County, Texas. June.

62. Basal rosettes of lechuguilla- Example of a cluster of rosettes, asexual modules of a genetic individual of lechuguilla. It was explained in the immediately preceding photo-caption that lechuguilla probably produces more rosettes than any other Agave species in North America. Recall from that explantion that each such rosette is a clone (= module= ramet) of the original "parent plant" which is the genet. Gentry (1982, p. 30) explained that each rosette of A. lechuguilla is a "monocarpic rosette". Each rosette flowers only once in its life (the life of that clone or module) and then dies; in fact, it begins to die as soon as the one-time flower stalk with its inflorescence begins to emerge and elongate. This condition was obvious in the flowering rosette in the cluster shown in this photograph. The inflorescence on this particular stalk was presented in the immediately succeding photograph. With this pattern of life cycle and resource allocation, each genetic individual (the genet or actual unique plant) of lechuguilla with its ramets (rosettes) is a "multiannual" (Gentry, 1982, p. 30). Gentry's choice of terms could confuse the beginning student. Yes, the individual rosette flowers only once in its life and then promptly dies. The flowering-seed production process takes only a few weeks as flower stalk growth is extremely rapid (perhaps over a foot a day) such that this phenological development is "annual" (more like "ephemeral"). Yet it takes years (perhaps a quarter century) of reserve food storage, rosette growth, and formation of stalk primordial tissue development before flowering can be initiated. In reality each rosette is a long-lived perennial that finally flowers and then summarily dies. With asexual (vegetative or clonal) reproduction the genetically unique plant has a life span that is seemingly "endless" or "forever". The only thing annual about an Agave species is the amazing flowering and fruit production phenomenon. And that is phenomenonal.

63. Inflorescence of lechuguilla- Gentry (1982, ps. 36-46) described the Agave inflorescence. There are two basic forms of Agave inflorescence: 1) spicate or racemose typical of subgenus Littaea and 2) paniculate typical of subgenus Agave but-- as is so typical of living thing-- there are intermediate forms "which combine or bridge the two" (Gentry, 1982, ps. 37-38). The more-or-less spicate form in lechuguilla is an example of this combination form. with a Hudspeth Conty, Texas. June.

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64. Inflorescence of lechuguilla in anthesis- Detailed view of individual flowers of A. lechuguilla. Pigmentation of flower organs, including filaments, apparently varies among genetic individuals of A. lechuguilla. Lechuguilla flowers are, however, always strikingly beautiful. Presidio County, Texas. June.

118. (61) Basal rosettes of lechuguilla-

121. Havard agave or Havard century plant (Agave havardiana)- Life and death simultaneously were playing out in this sexually reproducing Havard agave. After taking years (maybe several decades) to store up reserve food, grow leaves of the basal rosette, and development floral meristem this agave was in full-bloom and dying at the same time. The lowrmost leaves had already died as this plant was in anthesis and in process of exchanging gametes. A. havardiana is in the subgenus Agave which has the paniculate form of inflorescence. A drooping or weeping juniper with fire-killed outer branches "watched" from behind as timeless Casa Grande provided a proper backdrop. Range Management has a romance all its own. Chisos Basin, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

122. Mexican pinyon pine (Pinus cembroides)- Two specimens of Mexican pinyon pine growing in Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park (Brewster County, Texas). The "nut pines" have commonly been interpreted as one of four subdivisions of the soft pine group (subgenus Haploxylon; Strobus). Treatment by Harlow et al. (1979, ps. 60, 74-76) was readily followed. The so-called "nuts" are merely the naked seeds of a complicated taxon within Pinus. These seeds have served as important feeeds (ie. mast) for native and domestic animals as well food as for man. American Indians relied on pine nuts as a dietary stable for generations extending back to prehistory. The Mexican pinyon pine of Trans-Pecos range environments is Pinus cembroides var. cembroides (Harlow et oal., 1979, p. 76; Powell, 1988, p. 51).

123. Branches and leaves of Mexican pinyon pine- Boughs with needles and terminal buds (site of apical meristem) of Pinus cembroides var. cembroides. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

124. Trunk of alligator juniper (Juniperus deppeana)- The bark of alligator juniper is separated or divided into rectangular units that somewhat resemble the scales on the back of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). This juniper (it is not usually referred to as "cedar" as are many of the species of this genus) is one of the largest and, with the tell-tale bark, most distinctive of the western Juniperus species. In most of the pinyon-juniper woodland subtypes of which it is a component alligator juniper is not the most juniper nor is it typically the only Juniperus species. With its large size, however, alligator juniper has usually been regarded as a co-dominant especially when it grows in association with one of the pinyon pines. The trunks of alligator specimens are often seen to be of odd shape or form in addition to relatively large size (as shown in this individual). Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewst4r County, Texas. June.

125. Boughs (with cones) of alligator juniper- Branches with needles and fleshy cones of Juniperus deppeana. So-called "berries" on junipers are obviously not berries because the gymnosperms bear naked seeds. Seeds of Gymnospermae members are often borne together (in groups) on a woody structure known as a cone (eg. pine cone). In case of Juniperus species, the naked seeds are encased inside a fleshy exterior (hence "berry" to the laymen) that is termed a fleshy cone or, sometimes (and less properly), as fleshy seed. Fleshy cones and scaley leaves (needles) were displayed in more detail in the second of these slides.Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

126. Major oaks of the Chisos Mountains- Two species of oak were "put on parade" in this photograph taken in Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park. The tree on the left (and either basal heterophyllus shoots= "suckers" or a set of seedling shoots to its left and right) were Emory oak (Quercus emoryi); the shrub on the right was gray oak (Q. grisea). These two species are generally regarded as the two dominant oaks of mountains in the Trans-Pecos area (Powell, 1988, ps. 21-22). June.

126. Details of Emory oak- Bark, leaves, and fruit of Emory oak were displayed in this slide. Small shoot to left of big trunk was either a secondary shoot (perhaps heterophyllus shoot sprouting from basal trunk or roots) or an Emory oak seedling. Emory oak is the dominant Quercus species that develops a tree form in most Trans-Pecos Ranges like the Chisos Mountains. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

127. Emory oak (Quercus emoryi)- Leaves and acorns on a large Emory oak in the Davis Mountains of Trans-Pecos Texas. Emory oak is in the red or black oak subgenus, Erythrobalanus, species of which require two full growing seasons (years) for acorn production. Acorns are, of course, one of the major fruits known as mast, "nuts, acorns, and similar products which are consumed by animals" (Jacoby, 1989). Species from native birds and ruminants to man and his livestock use acorns as a staple of their diets. Jeff Davis County, Texas. June.

128. Gray oak- Gray oak is the dominant species of scrub oak in most of the major mountain ranges throughout the Trans-Pecos Basin and Range area. This specimen was the plant growing to the right of the Emory oak tree in the two photographs just before the preceding photograph of Emory leaves and acorns. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

129- Leaves of gray oak (Quercus grisea)- Leadaers with leaves of the specimen of gray oak shown in the immediately preceding photograph.Gray oak is in the white oak subgenus, Leucobalanus, species of which require only one full growing season for production of an acorn crop. Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

130. Two "pals" in the oak-pinyon-juniper woodland cover type- A Texas madrone, known also as naked Indian and lady's leg, (Arbutus texana= A. xalapensis= A. xalapensis. var. texana) and, behind the madrone, alligator juniper. Texas madrone typically grows as an individual tree or shrub or, infrequently, in small colonies. This species is not a dominant or even an associate species, but it is a woody component and characteristic species of oak-pinyon-juniper woodland range in the Trans-Pecos Basin and Range area. Texas madrone (like alligator juniper) is also a characteristic species in range plant communities besides the pinyon-juniper cover type. An example includes ecotones between a mosaic of encinal oak and pinyon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine cover types which was the case for these two trees. Texas madrone does "stand out" in the any woodland crowd as rangemen would expect of a lady's leg or a naked Indian. Texas madrone is in Ericaceae, the heath or heather family, one of the characteristics of which is smooth, colorful bark on often bent or curving shoots and limbs (again, like a lady's leg or naked Indian). Guadalupe Mountains, Guadalupe National Park, Culbertson County, Texas. June.

131. Two "legs" in the oak-pinyon-juniper woodland cover type- A "pin-up" photograph of Texas madrone or lady's leg (right) and an alligator juniper (left) showing characteristic bark of these two species that occur on oak-pinyon-juniper woodland range. Close-up of the two trees introduced in the immediately preceding photograph. These two specimens were growing in the Guadalupe Mountains in transition range vegetation between encinal oak/ pinyon-juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forest. Leaves of ericaceous species are, like their bark, distinctive and possessing unique features. Leaves of most members of the Ericaceae are relatively large, thich, and highly cutinized. Ericaceous leaves such as those of Arbutus species have traditionally been described as "broad-schlerophyllus" following Cooper (1922) who first applied the term to Clifornia chaparral vegetation. Guadalupe National Park, Culbertson County, Texas. June.

132. Branches of littleleaf sumac (Rhus microphylla) in full-fruit- Leaders of littleleaf or desert sumac (first photograph) and details of leaves and fruit of the same (second slide). The fleshy fruit of Rhus species is a drupe: the fruit type in which the outer layer or skin is the exocarp, the fleshy layers are mesocarp, and the bone-like seed coat is the endocarp; endocarp and seed constitute a pyrene (the stone or pit). Hence, drupes are stone fruits or pit fruits (Smith, 1977). This woody species is well-adapted to xeric environments and is widely distributed on harsher habitats such as drier or shallower soils in the Great Plains as well as basins and bajadas of the Chihuhuan Desert. Desert sumac is often common of tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica) swales or "flats" in the semidesert grasslands. Drupes are sometimes cooked in hot water to make "hillbilly lemonade". Beats a job in the eye, but this author recommends the "real stuff" (or tea or coffee or milk or cold water or ...; you get the picture). Davis Mountains, Brewster County, Texas. June.

133. Lanceleaf sumac (Rhus lanceolata= R. copallina var. lanceolata)- Lanceleaf sumac is one of the Rhus species that can grow into tree form and size (or a large, spreading shrub) as evidenced by this specimen that was at peak bloom in the Davis Mountains of Trans-Pecos Texas (Brewster County). June.

134. Leaves and inflorescences of lanceleaf sumac- This Rhus species is of limited browse value for livestock (generally Poor feed value) except for goats and it is of somewhat higher browse value (roughly Fair) for native browsers like deer, but the drupe fruits can be excellent for birds like upland game species. All visible parts of this woody species appeared to this author to have potentially high ornamental value, especially for native plant purists. The inflorescence type is a panicle. Davis Mountains, Brewster County, Texas. June..

135. Evergreen sumac, tobacco sumac, or lentisco (Rhus virens subsp. virens)- Not much attention has been paid to this sumac as a range plant. In Important Western Browse Plants Dayton (1931, p. 97) cited previous work that found evergreen sumac "to be a pioneer in the vegetation of limestone ledges in west Texas, forming a protection for other species which occupy more slowly..." and therefore being important in watershed protection. The adjective "evergreen" comes from the supposed characteristic of evergreenness, but leaves of this subspecies and toughleaf sumac (R. virens subsp. choriophylla) frequently turn red or brown in autumn. Leaves are extrmely shiny and bright. The adjective "tobacco" was derived from reports that Indians like the Commanches cured leaves and used them as a substitute for or mixed with tobacco to smoke in their pipes. The fruits of all Rhus species can be used to make a refreshing drink (often termed "lemonade") by steeping in hot water and subsequent cooling. Good for college freshmen who will (do) try any- and everything. Returning to the namesake "tobacco" and sticking with college students, it should be pointed out that smoking of Rhus leaves is likely less toxic than most else they smoke, snort, guzzle, shoot, poke, prod, pump, hump, or otherwise imbibe in. Presidio County, Texas. June.

136.Phytoparasite in the Chisos- Rough or boll American mistletoe (Phoradendron bolleanum= P. hawksworthii) parasitizing a juniper (Juniperus sp.). Add to the multi-layers of the oak-Mexican pinyon pine-juniper woodland an epiphyte layer, and a parasitic one at that. Parasitism is one of the important interactions among organisms on ranges. In context of range plants and vegetation your author included important parasitic throughout this publication. This example continued that tradition. Mistletoes have been extensively studied by forest pathologists, but the mistletoe featured here is not one of the major economically important species. Mistletoes like the Phoradendron species are known as the true or leafy mistletoes (in contrast to the dwarf mistletoes that are far more common on conifers). Green Gulch, Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.