Southern and Central Forests I

Forest Range Types of Eastern North America

The fundamental and practical distinction between coniferous and deciduous forests is useful (and was used herein), but precise, non-arbitrary "lines" are impossible when presenting and discussing forest range types in the eastern half of the continent. This is especially the case when climax or potential natural vegetation is used as the basis for forest types (ie. when cover types, or the more specific management cover types, are discussed as being more or less synonymous with permanent forest types). As discussed in detail below, the epic work of Lucy Braun (1950) is still the definitive basis for the ecological discussion and classification of those North American forests which extend from the Atlantic Coast to slightly beyond the Missouri and Mississippi River drainages. Braun (1950) included all the coniferous forests (forest types, regions, etc.)-- the generic "southeastern pine region"--as part of her one Deciduous Forest Formation.  The forest range typzes included in the following section include coniferous, deciduous, and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. This is confusing but unavoidable given the nature of the vegetation and the standard understanding (the Braun interpretation) of ecological relations and classification of  this forest vegetation. Most of the southeastern pine types presented are management cover types maintained silviculturally as more economically valuable coniferous forests rather than as the climax mixed hardwood-pine forest types. In other words, efforts were made to fit the Society of American Foresters (1980) cover types with the climax types of Braun (1950) and the potential natural vegetation units of Kuchler (1966).       The major forest communities or forest zones of eastern North America are broad or wide in their spatial patterns unlike the narrow zonation characteristic of the forests of western North America. The “young” mountains of the western part of the continent are taller (in fact, still getting taller) and as a result have more elevation-based zonation of vegetation than do the geologically older and more eroded (lower) eastern mountains such as the Applachians or Ozarks. So too, are the soils of the Atlantic Coast more zonal (ie. major soil units are larger or broader in spational dimension like those of the vast continental interior whereas soils of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Slope ranges are more of the intrazonal spatial scale. See for illustration the national soil map of dominant soil orders and suborders (Soil Survey Staff, 1998).  Vankat (1979, p. 137) wrote that relief within the eastern deciduous forest “is quite variable” yet earlier Vankat (1979, p. 41) had also correctly noted that “low hills “ were characteristic of much of this deciduous forest region. Again, contrast this with the extreme physiography of the Rockys or Sierra Nevada-Cascade Ranges. The classic and still-definitive work on forests of eastern North America (approximately east of the 98th meridian) is the life’s work of Dr. Lucy Barun (1950). Braun interpreted this entire vegetation as one great forest formation existing as a mosaic of forest regions which in turn were made up of community units that she labeled variously as belts, areas, districts, sections, divisions, etc.     “The Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America is a complex vegetation unit most conspicuously characterized by the prevalence of the deciduous habit of most of its woody constituents. This gives to it a certain uniformity of phsiognomy,      with alternating summer green and winter leafless aspects. Evergreen species, both broad-leaved and needle-leaved, occur in the arboreal and shrub layers, patticularly in seral stages  and in marginal and transitional areas. They are not, however, entirely lacking even in some centrally loocated climax communities” (Braun, 1950, p. 31).         “The Deciduous Forest Formation is made up of a number of climax associations differing from one another in floristic compositon, in physiogonomy, and in genesis or historical origin. While the delimitation of associations may be made on a basis of dominant species, and it is from these that the climax is named, dominants alone fo not suffice for the recognition of these units. … Although the delimitation in space of an association is difficult, if not impossible, it is entirely possible to recognize and to map forest regions which are characterized by the prevalence of specific climax types, or by mosaics of types. These regions are natural entities, generally with readily observable natural boundaries based on vegetational features. … Forest regions must not be confused with climax associations. Even though a region is named for the climax association normally developing within it, it should not be assumed that the region is coextensive with the area where that climax can develop. Each of the several climaxes, although characterizing a specific region, nevertheless occurs in other regions.” (Braun, 1950, p. 33-34).Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) listed nine forest regions making up the Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America:                 1. Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region,                 2. Western Mesophytic Forest Region,                 3. Oak-Hickory Forest Region,                 4. Oak-Chestnut Forest Region,                 5. Oak Pine Forest Region,                 6. Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region,                 7. Beech-Maple Forest Region,                 8. Maple-Basswood Forest Region, and                 9. Eastern Hemlock-Eastern White Pine-Northern Hardwoods Region.  Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) interpreted these same combinations of species as forest communities at the scale (both spatial, mostly, and, also, temporal) of climax association  from which, as quoted immediately above, Braun derived the names of forest regions. Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) distinguished between the association-abstract and the association-concrete, a distinction discussed in the review of the derivation of vegetation cover type from the concept of plant association. The Braun association is the association of F.E. Clements. Indeed the entire ecological paradigm on which Braun (1950, ps. 10-15) based her monographic treatment of the North American Deciduous Formation is Clementisan except allowance for and inclusion of edaphic and physiographic climaxes of Cowles, Tansley, etc.  Vankat (1979, ps. 137-150) and Delcourt and Delcourt in Barbour and Billings (2000, ps. 365-378) described eastern deciduous forest vegetation under the Braun (1950) associations of the Clementsian model. It is important to bear in mind that the Braun associations can occur in more than the one forest region bearing the name of the association (eg. the Oak-Pine Association commonly occurs and the Maple-Basswood Association infrequently occurs in parts of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region). Several of the species combinations that delineate deciduous forest regions and associations were also used as forest cover types by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) as for example White Pine-Hemlock (SAF 22), White Pine-Northern Red Oak-Red Maple (SAF 20), Sugar Maple-Basswood (SAF 26), and Beech-Sugar Maple (SAF 60). The Society of American Foresters emphasized that it’s forest cover types were “based on existing tree cover” (… forest as they are today…”) and that some types may be climax while others are “transitory” (ie. seral stages leading to another climax). Braun (1950, p. xiii) specified: “Some of the communities for which composition is given are readily referable to ‘forest cover types’ as defined by the Society of American Foresters”. She then added, “However, an attempt to classsify all communities as to ‘cover types’ would be artificial” and often impossible. Undoubtedly this was due to the differences in classification by Braun’s climax basis (with seral communities clearly specified) versus the existing or present-day forest communities basis of the SAF.  The Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994, p. xi) also specified the criterion of “existing vegetation” and that some rangeland cover types are climax and others are seral. The author of this collection of photographs and descriptions repeatedly reminded readers of this situation, but specified that most of the rangeland and forest cover types included herein were climax vegetation. That criterion exist for forest range types of the Eastern Deciduous forest Formation with most photographs being of either old-growth or second-growth forest with climax species composition as described in the classic literature such as Braun (1950) or Shelford (1963, ps. 17-119). The nine forest regions of Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) were retained with little modification as series in the fairly comprehensive system of vegetation (primarily, climax; secondly, disclimax or subclimax) used in A Classification of North American Biotic Communities by Brown et al. (1998). Their organization of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Formation was: Oak-Hickory Series, Oak-Chestnut Series, Beech-Maple Series, Oak-Pine Series, Maple-Basswood Series, and Hemlock-White Pine-Mixed Hardwood Series within the Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community and Mixed Mesophytic Series and Pine Series within the Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community. The Brown et al. (1998) series were included below following SAF and/or SRM cover type designations. Additional designations as for forest wetlands were shown as required.

Historical Footnote and Editorial

The consistent and persistent use of the eastern deciduous forest associations of Braun (1950) by the foremost contemporary ecologists provides the beginning student of Ecology with a textbook example of the necessity of learning the fundamental concepts— and the language(s) thereof —that are the foundation of his selected field of Biology. No ecological monograph, including those of John E. Weaver or Victor E. Shelford, ever used Clementsian concepts and terminology any more consistently or with any more practical application than did Braun (1950). All three of these (and there were others besides these) patriarchal ecologists of North American vegetation left future generations with not only the seminal but also the definitive treatises of the communities to which they devoted their professional lives Their like, their genre of comprehensive, panaramic, descriptive, first-hand accounts of vegetation on this grand scale, will not likely appear again before icicles hang in Hell. The contemporary research world is hung up on numbers, even generated or simulated (vs. real data) numbers often for numbers-sake alone, and especially numbers of publications. This has gone beyond Lord Kelvin’s admonition to “express it in numbers”,  (indeed Kelvin used actual numbers derived from physical experiments) to the point that quantity is everything and quality (always subsidary to quantity) itself is based on numbers. Not only is there little room for Descriptive Ecology, but there is hardly more for descriptive analysis of experiments and observations because the gold-standard of refereed publications has descended, has been perverted, to the quantitative entity of LPU (Lowest Publishable Unit). A natural length paper based on objectives of the study is split into as many LPUs as possible to extend the author’s bibliography. This procedure does not allow enough results to be included in any one paper to allow a discussion of  findings from a comprehensive perspective. Besides the experimental procedure (complete with lots of numbers and split-nine-ways-to-Sunday replications) is the most important part according to anonymous peer-reviewers.   In an institutional culture where “Publish or Perish” has become prostituted to a realm of pot-boiler papers written from predictable-outcome, piss-ant projects the next generation of Brauns, Weavers, Shelfords are “dead meat” if they devote (ie. sacrifice) their careers to document for eternity the kind of knowledge their “takes a lifetime “ research produced. Such incredible work is left to not only the fully vested or tenured but the tenured full professor of independent financial means at career’s end (and then there is not enough time left to do the work). A key factor in the creative genius and amazing productivity of Frederic E.Clements was that he was able to spend most of his career working for the rich Carnegie Foundation which freed him from the routine of classroom teaching and daily chores of academia thereby enabling him the luxury of a self-proclaimed “escaped professor” (Brewer, 1988, p. 503).  Alternatively, the most lasting and useful research is the province of the academic martyr to whom pursuit of knowledge or satisfaction of curiosity are of higher utility than organizational rank and its financial renumeration.  Thus the Ecology student is left with the classical works of those “giants in the earth” who reigned when knowledge was the domain of a more leisurely, honest, genteel, and collegial time and culture. The scholar of biblical texts cannot read just the several English translations of the Holy Bible. He must also understand the native tongues of Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek in which Holy Writ was written. So too with the “scripture” of Ecology. And the language of vegetation, at least North American vegetation, is Clementsian. The serious student of vegetation must be knowledgable and conversant in this language given that so much of the all-encompassing vegetation literature was written predominately from the view of Clementsian Ecology (and vocabulary). These original, monographic works remain the basis, however distant, of current investigations or even classifications of vegetation. The basic ecological concepts in such natural resource fields as Range Management and Forestry remain Clementsian at root (eg. the Clementsian association is the basis of the forest and range cover types as used in North America). Any who would refuse to familarize themselves with Clementsian Ecology because there are exceptions to and alternative models for some of its general, long temporal-large spatial scales traverse the terrain of ecological literature half blind. In their zeal to reform the basic vegetation paradigm to include, justifiably, the exceptions they end up “throwing the baby out with the bath water”.

Live oak (Quercus virgiana) Hammock Forest

1. Live oak hammock (hammock is Indian for "shady place")- This is a unique land form and range vegetation type restricted to the southeastern portion of North America, especially Florida. Hammocks are characterized by being fairly level to gently rolling and higher than surrounding land. Yet they are poorly drained and fertile (soils are high in humus) with hardwood communities that are typically dominated by live oak canopy and an understory of cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), carpetgrass (Axonopus affinis), and panicgrasses (Panicum spp.). FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). There is no Kuchler equivalent for communities this small; the Kuchler system lumped this type in with some other larger unit of which K-81 (Live Oak-Sea Oats) seemed most fitting. SRM 817 (Oak Hammocks). Mixed Hardwood Series in Floridian Evergreen (Hammock) Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Central Florida Ridges and Uplands Ecoregion, 75c (Griffith et al., undated).

2. Interior of a Florida live oak hammock with tell-tale raised yet wet ground- Mid-canopy shrubs include wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) and American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) with sparsely scattered saw palmetto (Serenoa repens).FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). Subunit of K-81 (LiveOak-Sea Oats). SRM 817 (Oak Hammocks). Mixed Hardwood Series in Floridian Evergreen (Hammock) Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Central Florida Ridges and Uplands Ecoregion, 75c (Griffith et al., undated).

Slash Pine (Pinus elliottii) Forest

3. Florida flatwoods range site at climax- This is the most widespread range site in Florida. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) upperstory with a nutritious and productive understory dominated by creeping bluestem (Andropogon stolonifer), chalky bluestem (A. capillipes), and shortspike bluestem (A. brachystachys). Osceola County, Florida. February. FRES NO. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106 (Subtropical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]). SRM 811 (South Florida Flatwoods). Variant of Pine Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).

4. Florida flatwoods range with saw palmetto invasion on deteriorated range- Infrequent fire and possibly past abuse from overstocking has depleted the climax bluestem understory allowing domination by the unpalatable, less fire-tolerant, invading palmetto. Osceola County, Florida. February. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106- (Subtroical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]), some departure from climax. SRM 811 (South Florida Flatwoods). Variant of Pine Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).

5. Slash pine plantation- Excellent management with thinning and prescribed burning to control saw palmetto. Understory is primarily wiregrass or threeawn, especially pineland threeawn (Aristida stricta). Avon Park Bombing and Gunnery Range, Florida. February. FRES No.12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem).Variant of K-106 (Subtropical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]), human-directed departure from climax and an example of agroforestry. SAF 84 (Slash Pine). Variant of Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).

6. Needles and cones of slash pine (Pinus elliottii)- The attractive long leaves of this fast-growing pine (and of the longleaf pine) are likely an example of evolution and adaptation to specific habitats. The pines sporting long needles are native to the Lower South where heavy snow and ice storms are rare. The shortleaf pine with it's much shorter leaves is native to the Upper South where infrequent but severe ice storms are a winter fact of life. Ice storms in particular can destroy a crop of young long-needle pines just as surely as ice in the form of hailstones wipes out a wheat crop.

7. Slash pine plantation-This stand was recently thinned to two-thirds of pre-thinning density; about 20 years post-planting. Slash will be disposed of primarily by prescribed burning which will do "double-duty" of reducing cover of saw palmetto and the likelihood of danger to trees from wild fire.Pine will be harvested at about 45 to 50 years post-planting. Slash pine stands such as this are clearly transitory forest range with a grazable understory persisting only until pines grow large enough that their crowns form a closed canopy which excludes light from the forest floor. Avon Park Bombing and Gunnery Range, Florida. February. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-106 as explained immediately above.SAF 84 (Slash Pine). Variant of Pine Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).

Big Thicket Forest (including "islands" or isolated tracts of the Mixed Mesophytic Type)

8. Bayou range in the core of Texas Big Thicket- This frequently flooded bottomland site has high clay content soils that dry rapidly (due to high evapo-transpiration rates) creating an understory dominated by dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor). The tree layer defines this laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia)-overcup oak (Q. lyrata)-loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forest range type. This is an edaphic climax as viewed from the perspective ofpolyclimax theory. Little Pine Island Bayou, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem).One of many variants of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). One of the numerous variants of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series in Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community (even though in southeastern part of continent; an Oak-Pine Series for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community would seen warranted) of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

9. Climatic (= regional) climax of Texas Big Thicket- American beech (Fagus grandifolia)-southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)-white oak (Quercus alba)-loblolly pine forest. In Clementsian monoclimax theory this is the ultimate formation, the endpoint of vegetation development to which all vegetation of this region converges. It is the climax on mesic, level, upland areas. Trees left to right: southern red oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia), magnolia, loblolly pine and beech. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. This magnificant forest cover type was apparently too small for FRES or Kuchler to "pigeon-hole". As it is one of the southern forest types with a pine as one dominant species it would have to be included in FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder.However, the close "kinship"of this forest to the mixed mesophytic and mixed hardwoods forests (both in the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region) and to the mixed mesophytic forest in the Southern Appalachians of the Oak-Chestnut Forest Region (Braun, 1950, ps. 199-205, 297-303) strongly suggested that this cover type most closely fit Kuchler-95 (Applalachian Oak Forest) which is an equivalent under FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Frankly, it was surprising to this author that Kuchler did not give a more specific designation for this major, though restricted, type given that Braun (1950, p. 445) specified that it could be seen as a separate association the same as for the Oak-Hickory Association and the Beech-Maple Association both of which have FRES and Kuchler recognitions. (Braun [1950, ps. 443-445] placed the Beech-Magnolia climax in the Mixed Mesophytic Association as transitional between Deciduous and Broad-leaved Evergreen Formations.) The Society of American Foresters (1980) also missed this one. The closest SAF forest cover type is probably 82 (Loblolly Pine- Hardwood) but that is not close enough. Beyond any doubt beech and magnolia are the recognized dominants and the pine is the least of the dominants. Only with man-set prescribed fire could the loblolly pine be maintained at higher proportions of the climax community.This is primarily a hardwood type and certainly not a pine-oak type. Braun (1950, ps. 300-303, enclosed map) discussed and mapped the beech-magnolia forest as part of the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region. Braun did not map at association levels. Perhaps western island of Mixed Mesophytic Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

10. Climax mixed mesophytic forest (the beech-magnolia-loblolly pine type)- This is the westernmost extension of a forest type dominant in the Great Smokey Mountains and Applachian region. Tree in foreground is American beech; trees on far left are magnolia. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May. Mesic site. FRES and Kuchler recognitions (lack thereof) discussed immediately above. Variant of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

11. Climax of the mixed mesophytic forest- In the Clementsian concept of climax (ie. a monoclimax or regional climax determined primarily by climate) the ultimate expression of potential natural vegetation of the deep pineywoods (general hardwood, namely oak,-pine forest) is a mixing of this regional climax with elements of the mixed mesophytic forest to the east. In this species-rich forest vegetation southern magnolia and American beech join with white oak (and several other oak species as shown below) and loblolly pine to form a unique forest range community that can be visualized as postclimax (ie. more mesic than the general climax of the area or region) as was explained by braun (1950, p.13). This photograph of a mixed mesophytic X white oak-loblolly pine forest (ie. an overlapping or ecotone of these two was on a locally wet site and featured a large, old southern magnolia (foremost tree in center foreground with bulging trunk) growing beside (to right of) an immense white hockory, mockernut hickory, hognut hickory, or white-heart hickory (Carya tomentosa) with readily identifiable soft gray bark and pointed compound leaves. These two "champines" of their respective spceis stood majestically in front of loblolly pine, white oak, laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia) and cherrybark oak (Q. prinus). The backside (side away from the photograph) of this specific southern magnolia was shown in detail in the next photograph. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May. Mesic site. FRES and Kuchler recognitions (lack thereof) were covered in the photo caption before the immediately preceding slide. Variant of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

12. Goosepen in the Big Thicket- The forester's term, goosepen, is "a place hollowed out by fire at the base of a standing tree" (Munns, 1950). This large fire scar (it extended to a height of nearly five feet) was on the backside of the large southern magnolia featured in the immediately preceding photograph. Such fire scars on old trees attest to incidence of surface forest fires in the pineywoods the same as obtains for all other regions of the eastern deciduous forest. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May.

13. Climatic climax vegetation type of Big Thicket form of Texas Piney Woods- The beech-magnolia-white oak-loblolly pine forest cover type. This is the ultimate expression, the mesophytic form, of the Big Thicket forest.Magnolia, far left; white oak; center right. Note lush understory of browse plants even under closed forest canopy at climax. Tree species visible include loblolly pine, laurel oak, and swamp chestnut oak (Quercus prinus).Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve. May, vernal aspect; mesic site. Problems with unit recognition by FRES, Kuchler, and SAF discussed two slides above. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

14. Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)- A beautiful flower of the stately southern magnolia against a backdrop of the broad sclerophyllus leaves of this climax pineywoods species. State Tree of Mississippi.

Water Oak (Quercus nigra) Forest

The first example of the water oak (Quercus nigra) forest cover type shown immediately below was in a commercial forest in the Big Thicket section of the Texas Pineywoods. This water oak forest vegetation was adjacent to loblolly pine stands and a forest dominated by loblolly pine, water oak, American holly both with a lower woody layer comprised primarily of yaupon or, often called, yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria). Water oak has been regarded as Intolerant as to tolerance and as a subclimax species that is quite susceptible to fire damage (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703). Thus while light surface fires tend to maintain pines like the associated loblolly pine, major fire damage as with crown fires would select for regeneration of water oak. In absence of fire plant succession would progress to a climax of hardwoods, which in the Big Thicket would commonly be American beech, southern magnolia, American holly, and climax oaks such as white oak.

15. Water oaks in the Pineywoods- Exterior view of a local stand of water oak growing on a flatland forest site that frequently ponded water. Loblolly pine were growing around perimeter of the water oak stand. Yaupon grew as widely scattered individuals while most of the ground layer was oak leaves with scattered plants of longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessifolia), cottongrass bulrush (Scirpus cyperinus), and green flat sedge (Cyperus virens). These species (from this locale) were featured below under the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwoods forest. The largest--and also the most scarce-- herbaceouss pecies was bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) which was also featured below. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This is a component or subtype of the general hardwood-pine southern forest forest that has one of the southeastern yellow pines a dominant or, sometimes, an associate species with oaks, hickories, or even beech as the more common climatic dominant (in contrast to a fire-determined dominant). Overall this forest range vegetation would have to be included in FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

Inside the water oaks- Interior of the local stand of water oak presented immediately above. This was a local consociation of Quercus nigra with a "broken" (widely scattered) population of yaupon holly and local herbaceous cover composed variously of longleaf woodoats, cottongrass or woolgrass bulrush, green flat sedge, and panicgrasses (Panicum spp.). This isolated water oak stand was adjacent to a mixed forest of loblolly pine, wter oak, and American holly (covered below). Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004)..

16. One of the more common forms or manifestations of oak forest in the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana is the Palmetto-Oak Flats (Ajilvsgi, 1979, ps. 12-13) or, when expressed as to topographic-edaphic rather than botanical features, Clayey Wet Upland Depressions (Diggs et al., 2006, ps. 97-98). Ajilvsgi (1979, p. 12) described overcup oak and laurel oak as dominants whereas Diggs et al., (2006, p. 98) emphasized willow oak and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) as major plants of the larger tree species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p. 63) described the willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf or laurel oak type (SRM 88) as developing on a topographic-soil moisture gradient intermediate between the swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak type (SRM 91) and the overcup oak-water hickory type (SRM 96) with dominance of SRM 88 tending to change to non-oak hard spceies like green ash under heavy logging or high-grading. The photographs shown below were of a water oak-willow oak forest with a lower shrub layer made up almost exclusively of dwarf palmetto and a herbaceous layer(s) of sedges, rushes, bulrushes, and panicoid grasses. Views of the Oak-Palmetto Flats in these slides were presented so as to view this forest range vegetation going from exterior to deep interior as if the viewer were traveling to and then into it.

17. Coming onto the Oak-Palmetto Flats- Exterior view of an example of the willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf (laurel) oak type showing physiogonomy and overall species composition of this form of Pineywoods. Dominant species of this stand was water oak with willow (locally known as "pin" oak). Laurel oak was a distant third Quercus species. Blackgum or black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) was another associate tree species. The largest tree with the horizontal upper limb and fire-scarred basal trunk was an ancient water oak readily idetified by the sporadically scattered, prominent "warts" of bark. Loblolly pine was represented by one conspicuous tree in center midground. There were other infrequent loblolly pine throughout. Young trees grouped at right foreground were a mixture of water and willow oak and very black tupelo. Dwarf palmetto made up a lower shrub layer. Grassses and grasslike plants comprised one or two (rarely three) herbaceous layers in the forest understorey. Herbaceous plants were most common around perimeter of the forest vegetation. Individuals of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) were prominent in foreground understorey. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

18. Edge of an Oak-Palmetto Flats forest range- Around perimeter of a stand of water and willow oak with dwarf palmetto were various local assemblages of herbaceous plants. The latter included cottongrass bulrush and miscellaneous sedges, both Carex and Cyperus species (eg. green flat sedge [C. virens]), along with panicgrasses, especially beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps); paspalums like brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatulum), and both broomsedge and bushy bluestem. These latter two species are invaders. These same species also formed herbaceous strata beneath the oaks and pines though with less continuous cover and smaller plants, conditions likely resultant from fairly dense shade. Water and willow oaks are Intolerant species. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

19. Into the Pineywoods flats we go- These three photographs were a pictorial "walk to the woods", a sequence of slides showing the range vegetation of a water oak-willow oak- loblolly pine-palmetto-herbaceous plants Pineywoods flats. Continually closer-in views allowed presentation of the herbaceous layer(s) of native vegetation that was better developed at outer edge of the forest stand. Some of the common herbaceous species of this vegetation were presented below in the section devoted to the loblolly pine cover type, specifically the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly form or subtype thereof. The smaller trees in foreground with unshed lower limbs (most of them still alive but senescing) were willow oak. Locals hereabouts apply the otherwise confusing and nonstandardized common name of "pin oak" to Quercus phellos. "Pin" in several oak species refers to any of the lower, usually dead, unshed limbs (ie. dying or dead limbs on species that do self-pruning, but instead become well-seasoned or preserved and, hence, persistent on the lower bole). There were a few scattered woody vines, the only one of which the author-photographer identified was rattan (= Alabama supplejack). Once inside the Pineywoods flats the interior of the water oak-willow oak-dwarf palmetto-herbaceous range community revealed a "closer-in" view of plant species composition and the lower woody layer of palmetto and the local vertical zone of herbaceous species. Largest trunk was that of a young to mid-age water oak with bark characteristic of an immature tree. At this stage of maturity bark of water oak and willow oak is so similar as to be indistinguishable, thereby making reliance on leaves and buds necessary for definitive indetification. "Warty" bark on older water oak bark was just forming on this straight-trunked specimen, but some smaller water oaks had larger "warts". Grass shoot (visible in both photographs) in front of this water oak was broomsedge bluestem, a common invader of Oak-Palmetto, which was common and conspicuous throughout this oak flats stand. Almost all herbaceous species were grasses or grass-like plants and, as this was dead of winter and this range had been grazed so that most species had to be identified by vegetative features, most herbs could not be identified by the author who was a "stranger to these parts". The tallest green herb was cottongrass bulrush (shown and described briefly below). There were no prominent forbs in this forest range vegetation. Dwarf palmetto comprised a single-species, lower, woody layer. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

20. "Up-and-dicular" perspective of a Oak-Palmetto Flats- Structure and species composition of the water oak-willow oak-dominated Pineywoods flatwoods described under horizontal photographs above. Architecture of this stand was displayed to better advantage in these two photographs. Most hardwood trees were water oak and willow oak of sapling to small pole size. Those with persistent lower limbs were willow oak. There was an "occasional" black tupelo (also of sapling-pole size). Cover and density of palmetto was shown to good advantage in the first of these two slides while the frequent openings within the palmetto that were populated by grasses and grasslike plants were evident in the second slide. Tree in left foreground with live lower limb was willow oak. This stand was obviously a second-growth forest. A cohort of sapling to small pole size oaks had developed beneath larger, established (older) but very widely scattered, mature oaks of both species. Structure and, especially, botanical composition of this stand was typical of climax water oak-willow oak-laurel oak-palmetto vegetation. Both willow oak and water oak are classified as Intolerant and recruitment of these species had been possible under a mostly open sky (sparse canopy of oak and loblolly pine). Natural thinning of oaks had already commenced as evidenced by the dead toppled pole (visible in both photographs). This will undoubtedly continue resulting in more dead younger oaks and fewer, though larger, trees (fewer boles but more board foot/acre) and eventually greater oak crown cover (increased--though by no means closed--tree canopy). The apparent dominant herbaceous species was cottongrass bulrush. Numerous individuals of broomsedge bluestem were conspicuous with their tannish yellow shoots dispersed among bulrush and other grasslike plants. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

21. Closing, composite shot of Pineywoods Oak-Palmetto Flats- All-in-one shot of species composition and structure (architeture) the water oak-willow oak-loblolly pine-palmetto-cottongrass bulrush-broomsedge bluestem community featured above. All of these species except loblolly pine, which dominated (generally and/or locally) their respecive layers of vegetation, were visible (if not obvious). In addition, rattan (= Alabamas supplejack) was featured prominently growing up trunks of oaks in left midground. Almost all oak trunks of any age are hosts to various crustose lichen, at least on north and east exposure. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

crown hignight

Water oak (Quercus nigra)- Upper trunk and crown of water oak showing leaves and bark of intermediate maturity. Older or most mature bark of water oak often forms wart-like raised areas (basal trunk and stump area). Houston County, Texas. March.

22. Dwarf palmetto, blue palmetto, swamp palmetto, dwarf palm, blue palm, etc. (Sabal minor)- Large, mature swamp palmetto with previous season's floral stalk and spent inflorescence. This true palm is most commonly acaulescent (lacking a trunk or bole) though sometimes there are individuals that have a single, short woody stalk which would "pass for" a trunk. The shoot or stem does not branch and is characterized as woody or pithy in nature. The speciment portrayed here was growing in the water oak-willow oak-lobollly pine-palmetto-cottongrass bulrush-broomsedge stand featured above. Hardin County, Texas, February.

Ecotone between Water Oak-Willow Oak Forest and Gulf Coastal Marsh

Another form or subtype of the primarily water oak (with willow oak locally con-dominant) cover type in the Texas-Louisiana Pineywoods develops as a transition zone between the hardwood-pine forest and the Gulf Coast marsh with one or the other of the major range plant communities (forest or marsh) having apparent dominance or predominance as aspect dominance (ie. either widely scattered hardwoods and pine with profusely branching, open crowns growing in a marsh or, alternatively, grasses, sedges, rushes, bulrushes, and other herbaceous marsh species growing as a sparse understorey beneath twater oak, willow oak, laurel oak, overcup oak, blackgum or black tupelo, green ash, and loblolly pine). It seemed to this author that it was less confusing and more consistent to include full coverage of this ecotonal range vegetation at this location rather than with Gulf Coastal marsh which was covered under the chapter, Tallgrass Prairie (Coastal). This forest range vegetation typically develops as or into a savanna and should in general be interpreted as such. Occasionally, however, there will be local communities of this ecotonal vegetation that appear to be more of forest (at least woodland) physiogonomy. This latter range plant community develops on depressions or ponded local sites. Both expressions of this ecotone are wetlands and were included below.

23. Out of the woods and onto the marsh- Exterior view of ecotone of Pineywoods and Gulf Coast marsh. Extreme eastern edge of hardwood-pine forest and beginning of coastal sedge-bulrush-tallgrass freshwater marsh. Feature of ponded water with combination of wet mesophytic and hydrophytic trees and an understorey of grasses and grasslike plants. Trees clearly dominanted the forest- or woodland-phase of this savanna wetland at edge of the Pineywoods forest whereas the predominant marsh-phase or form of this ecotone was in the background (and featured in succeeding slides). Even in this slide that emphasized the tree-dominated form there were scattered individuals of cottongrass bulrush (larger green clumps), numerous species of Carex and Cyperus along with various grasses of genera Panicum, Paspalum, and Andropogon. Tree species visible in this photograph included water oak, willow oak, blackgum or black tupelo, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and loblolly pine. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. This ecotone or transition zone perhaps should be given its own designation as a distinct potential natural vegetation, but such a classification unit of rangeland or forest vegetation as cover type either by Society for Range Manageament or Society of American Foresters), Forest and Range Ecosystem (USDA Forest Service) or by Brown et al., (1998). There was further--even more--confusion as to most precise desingation of the herbaceous wetland because it had features (species composition, structure, geographic location) of both SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie) and SRM 807 (Gulf Coast Fresh Marsh) as if it was a mixture of these two rangeland cover tyhpes. Closest overall vegetational designation with existing classification systems is a combination or "hybrid" of: FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

24. Interior of the ecotone between a mixed hardwoods flat and freshwater marsh- Inside the woodland- or forest-form or phase of an overall or general savanna formed by the transition between eastern edge of hardwood-pine Pineywoods and Gulf Coastal marsh of sedges, bulrushes, and panicoid grasses. Although the local site shown here has ponded water much of the year it is not inundated for a long enought period to qualify as a swamp. Presence of blackgum or black tupelo, a swamp species, along with a few individuals of overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) attested to extended periods of saturated (= a hydric state) soil. Dominance of this plant community by water oak and willow oak showed this site to be intermediate between poorly drained sites of overcup oak-water hickory forest and better-drained sites dominated by swamp chestnut oak and cherrybark oak (Eyre, 1980, p. 63). Dwarf or swamp palmetto (eg. center midground of first slide) was the main shrub, but individuals of this species were too widely scattered to form a shrub or lower woody layer. Most common and largest herbaceous species in understorey beneath trees on this ponded habitat was cottongrass bulrush (visible as large green tufts and also a component in large dried clumps of herbage). Carex, Cyperus, Panicum, Paspalum, Andropogon (especially A. virginicus, broomsedge bluestem, and A. glomeratus, bushy bluestem), and bentawn plumegrass were present either under crown canopy or adjacent to crown drip line. Loblolly pine in this wetland vegetation was represented by the largest trunk in the second slide. Tree immediately to right of the loblolly pine was a green ash. Foremost tree (left foreground) was a water oak. Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Tree-dominated phase of this savanna that was an ecotone of: FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

25. Outer perspective of hardwood-pine flats X fresh Gulf Coast marsh ecotone- Two views of the transition zone (and quite a tension zone at that) of a water oak-willow oak-overcup oak-blackgum-green ash-loblolly pine-palmetto community and a cottongrass bulrush-sedge-bluestem-panicgrass-paspalum-cordgrass freshwater coastal marsh. In contrast to the tree-dominated form of this ecotone presented above this showed the more widespread--and more savannah-like-- form of a marsh with scattered trees of the just-listed tree species. The largest trees and with spreading crowns in the first of these two photographs were water oak. Trees in center of second photograph included black tupelo (three trunks together). Identification of grasslike plants and most grasses was impossible in the existing state of decay and/or shattered fruit. Large individuals of cottongrass bulrush and broomsedge bluestem were exceptions. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) indicated 42 species of sedge (Carex spp.) and 18 species of flatsedge (Cyperus spp.) for the small county of Hardin. It was unquestionable that many of these species, along with species of spikerush (Eleocharis spp.) and bulrush (Scirpus spp.) as well as panicoid grasses such as bushy and broomsedge bluestem and isolated large individuals of sacahuista or Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), were present on this botanically diverse savannah. Forbs were limited nearly to point of "nonexistence". Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This ecotone was a combination of : FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

26. Inside an east Texas transition zone- Interior views of a savannah formed by the ecotone of a wet flatwoods made up of water and willow oak (dominants), with some overcup oak and laurel oak, loblolly pine, green ash, and black tupelo and of freshwater marsh composed of cottongrass bulrush, sedges, flatsedges, spikerushes, panicgrasses, paspalums, bentawn plumegrass, bushy and broomsedge bluestem (beardgrasss), and common cattail. Most of the trees in the first photograph were water oak; trunks of trees at far right margin of second photograp were overcup oak (Quercus lyrata).Immediately to left of the overcup oak (near center foreground) were shoots of bushy bluestem (closesst to overcup oak) and broomsedge bluestem (to left of the bushy beardgrass). Conspicuous green clumps were mostly cottongrass bulrush. Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This ecotone was a combination of : FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

27. Pool in the Pineywoods X Gulf Coastal marsh ecotone- At spatial scale of local site (in this instance, a larger microhabitat or microsite) a pool in the transition zone between hardwoods-pine flats and freshwater coastal marsh supported an array of aquatic plants from bulrushes and sedges of the Cyperaceae to common cattail (Typha latifolia) of Typhaceae. In the first slide longleaf pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus) was floating on the pool surface. Trees surrounding pool were water and willow oaks. Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. Range vegetation of this locale was described in captions of preceding slides.

Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Forest

Loblolly pine is the mainstay of the forest products in the southeastern forest of North America. Loblolly pine (and hybrids thereof) is the single most important species across this general region though, of course, other species including pines are the major lumber/pulp species in portions of the southeastern forest region (eg. slash pine in peninsular Florida). The classic though dated reference for loblolly pine probably is still the monograph by Wahlenberg (1960) with the work of Schultz (1997) a fine successor.

Organization note: this section is a "sampler" of loblolly pine. Complete coverage of loblolly pine forest range was shown in its own chapter, Loblolly Pine Forests.

28. Trunk of loblolly pine- This is the typical pattern and color of bark on this the largest of the four major pine species in the Southern Pine Region. Appropriately the bark bears the burnished coloration of past cool surface fires. A Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) with newly emerged leaves was climbing the attractive trunk. Crocket National Forest, Houston County, March.

29. Cones of loblolly pine- Relative size, shape, and unique gross features of loblolly pine were presented in these two views of two cones of the dominant pine over much of the southeastern portion of the deciduous forest of North America in cluding the pineywoods of east Texas and western Louisiana. The reproductive (sexual) organs of conifers are borne on a woody or fleshy (berry-like) structure that is designated a strobulus (strobili is the plural). These stroboli are called cones by foresters and most regular folk other than "real" botanists. Conifers produce separate male (staminate) and female (ovulate) cones so that this group of gymnosperms are either diocecious or monecious. Moneciousness is the general arrangement for most genera in Pinaceae (Pinus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga), Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus), and Taxodiaceae (Taxodium, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron).. Montgomery County, Texas. February (most seed had shattered from the woody ovulatecone).

30. Seed in a cone- Two views of a seed in the ovulate cone of loblolly cone. A seed of loblolly pine was shown without a marker in the first slide whereas the base of a fasicle of loblolly pine marked one seed in the second slide slide.The brown, parchment-resembling wing of this single seed (one of a pair) was cut away to more clearly reveal the dry seed. Most other seeds, including the other one of this cone unit, had shattered (been shed) from this cone. The cone of conifers in the Pinaceae is a compound woody structure comprised of numerous units on which the seed, with its attendant parts, develops and is borne while developing before being shed. Each woody unit of the ovulate cone is is a primary appendage-- a woody bract-- that is called the ovuliferous scale. This woody scale is the ovule/seed-bearing part of the cone (strobolus). Typically a pair of ovules, each of which develops into a dry seed (complete with a winged part for wind dispersal), form on the adaxial (= upper) surface of each woody ovuliferous scale resulting in formation of two seed scars on this upper surface (in the axil where scale joins the central woody axis of the cone. Montgomery County, Texas. February.

31. Core and treasure of the cone- Another view of a seed near apex of cone of loblolly pine. Then two views of a pair of loblolly pine seeds on adaxial surface of ovuliferous scale (ie. in axillary area where woody scale attached to central shaft of the cone). In the first of these two photographs the wing on the left seed of the pair was twisted far to the right for better viewing of the wing, but the wing was in from of (covering up) the right seed. In the second photograph the wing of both seeds of this pair had been removed to more clearly reveal the two seeds. Montgomery County, Texas. February.

32. Future loblolly pines- Unshattered loblolly pine seeds taken from the cones shown above. Some seeds still had their wings attached whereas others were missing these wind-dispersal facilitting organs. Steel measure indicated the size of seed and wings. The two seeds with attached, intact wings were a pair attached on the same woody ovuliferous scale. Montgomery County, Texas. February.

33. Up-close look- Seeds of loblolly pine were shown at closer distance to present details of seed coat and texture of the fragile woody material making up wings. Pines are examples of seed dispersal by wind, anemochory (= aerochory), in which wings facilitate action of wind as an agent or facilitator of sexual reproduction. Wind also operates as facilitator during pollination. Montgomery County, Texas. February.

34. Loblolly pine forest- Second (or "third", "fourth", etc.)- growth, but natural revegetation with an open understory dominated by little bluestem. Associated understory herbs include slender-leaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora) plus species ofPaspalum, Panicum, and Sporobolus among grasses plus native legumes like tickclover (Desmodium spp.) and numerous composites. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

35. Going into a loblolly pine pine- Stucture and botanical composition of a second-growth loblolly pine forest showing an herbaceous layer dominated by little bluestem followed by longleaf woodoats then beaked panicgrass with two annual panicgrass species sometimes locally functioning as associates, a tall shrub layer represented by flowering dogwood in full-flower, and a lower shrub layer (in this vegetation) of which yaupon holly was the major species. The two annual panicgrasses were warty panicgrass (Panicum verrucosum) and savanna panicgrass (P. gymnocarpon). Fire-scourched bark attested to use of prescribed or, at least, convenience burning in a Pineywoods oak-pine forest that was maintained primarily as a loblolly pine stand. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

36.Transitory loblolly pine forest range- Loblolly pine forest range at either: 1) late seral stage with loblolly pine maintained in a hardwood (mostly an oak)-pine forest by frequent burning or 2) a mid-stage (more-or-less) of a wood crop in a thin (sparsely or weakly stocked) stand of loblolly pine. Either way there was low stocking of loblolly pine, the tree crop species, and a well-developed, high-yielding (by loblolly pine range standards) herbaceous understorey for grazing livestock and/or wildlife. This was the same stand of loblolly pine forest vegetation as introduced in the immediately preceding photograph. Dominant grass in this "photo-plot" of that loblolly pine forest range was little bluestem with longleaf woodoats, beaked panicgrass, savanna panicgrass, and warty panicgrass also present. Foremost tree (slightly to right of a conspicuous pine trunk) was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). A young sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with just-beginning-to-open leaves was growing at left margin of photograph. Yaupon of sundry sizes was widespread throughout the woody layers. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

37. Growing doghair- In the same understorey as presented in the last two preceding photographs and captions there were some very localized (restricted) areas near mature loblolly pine trees on which there were extremely dense patches of pine seedings. Obviously not all of these seedlings could survive, but it was also obvious that these would develop into proverbial "doghair stands" unless something thinned them out. If natural agents of mortality such as fire and disease did not eliminate some of these woefully overstocked little blessings of Mother Nature then Man the Forester would have to intervene in order to achieve efficient management of forest resources. One such "doghair stand" of loblolly pine seedlings was presented in foreground of this photograph. Various Panicum species (major ones were listed in the preceding caption) were the major grasses on this "photo-plot". Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. Leaves on hardwood species (such as one in left foreground) were just emerging from buds. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

38. A crop of poles- Closed canopy stand of loblolly pine with no herbaceous (grazable) understorey and lower woody layers limited to Tolerant flowering dogwood and yaupon. As a wood crop this single-species stand of loblolly pine was approaching (within a few years of) maturity. This plantation stand was an example of industrial foresty. On this commercial forest the wood crop was a monoculture of fast-growing, hybrid loblolly pine. Such loblolly pine plantations are a form of even-aged silviculture (silvicultural system). This crop will be harvested in a few years by clearcutting, "a regeneration or harvest method that removes essentially all trees in a stand" (Helms, 1998). Harvest will result in release of many species of grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and Intolerant tree species like sweetgum. Several of the grass species such as those presented in preceding slides will persist for a number of years and through mid-sere of secondary plant succession. Tree species like sweetgum and numerous oaks and hickories will persist unless eliminated by application of selective herbicides or reduced by commercial livestock grazing and/or prescribed burning. Combinations of these silvicultural treatments may be used (as shown periodically throughout this chapter). This and preceding slides of loblolly pine forest vegetation illustrated transitory forest range that is typical of forest cropping systems on commercial (industrial) forests throughout much of southeastern North America. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). This was an anthropogenic variant of the following vegetational units. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004). Another interpretation of this highly human-modified (= non-natural) forest vegetation was FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). The Kuchler designation would still be K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) while the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) would be a man-made forest cover type of Loblolly Pine (SAF81).

Clarification of terms: the following concepts and definitions were provided from The Dictionary of Forestry developed by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) to assist students in understanding management and production of grazing and/or browsing resources on transitory forest range. Silvicultural system- a planned series of treatments for tending, harvesting, and re-establishing a stand. Regeneration method- a cutting procedure by which a new age class is created. Even-aged regeneration methods regenerate and maintain a stand with a single age class. One even-aged method is clearcutting which is the cutting of essentially all trees, producing a fully exposed microclimate for the development of a new age class (by either natural or artificial re-eatablishment of the next generation, crop, of trees)

39. "Will the real Pineywoods please stand up?"- "You bet, and this is it." In contrast to the loblolly pine plantation introduced in the immediately preceding slide (and several used below to illustrate silvicultural methods) here were two views of the natural oak-hickory-loblolly pine forest vegetation. This was a second-growth forest recovering from the heady days of "cut-and-run" heady logging, but it had the structure (including several layers of vegetation) and species composition of the native mixed hardwood-loblolly pine. Flowering dogwood and lesser cover of redbud hearlded the early days of spring in this sandy land (note road) upland Pineywoods forest. Not exactly a lobolly pine plantation as shown immediately above and farther below. Water oak, accompanied adult and sapling to pole-size loblolly pine. This forest consisted essentially of the species compoisition indicative of the climax vegetation except that following initial frontier, destructive, non-scientific logging; overgrazing (including by free-ranging, mast and root-eating hogs); and underburning (more likely, total fire exclusion) there was only limited herbaceous understorey (mostly of bluestem, panicgrass, and paspalum species along with some sedges and flatsedges) Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

40. Open understory(= permanent forest range) loblolly pine forest- This loblolly forest is growing immediately above the first terrace of the Sabine River. Recurrent fire (note small fire scar on base of first tree on the left) after establishment of loblolly pines maintained an open understory predominately of perennial wiregrass or threeawn species like woolyleaf threeawn (Aristida lanosa), longspike or slimspike threeawn (A. longespica), and purple or arrowfeather threeawn (A. purpurascens) with broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and splitbeard bluestem (A. ternarius) as associates. Pioneer annual composites like giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) and horseweed (Conyza canadensis= Erigeron canadensis) are also present, but as last year’s weathered-down stalks. Flowering dogwood (which is at peak bloom in this view) dominates the upper shrub layer with yaupon (green shrub beneath the blooming dogwood) as dominant of the lower shrub layer.   Under the current fire regime this is permaent loblolly pine forest range. It stands in contrast to the transitory loblolly pine forest range where there is denser tree stocking combined with discontinued use of prescribed burning to produce pulp wood instead of pine lumber as in the forest seen here. This range forest cover type persist as a result of the disturbance of repeated fire which kept out hardwood tree species like water and white oaks.The fire disturbance also made favorable habitat for old-field pioneer species such as the two weedy composites and annual threeawns like old-field threeawn (Aristida oligantha plus the similar A. desmantha) and churchmouse threeawn (A. dichotoma). The physiogonomy is that of climax Pineywoods but the absence of hardwood trees and the species composition of the herbaceous understory is clearly that of late seral (= subclimax) forest vegetation. It is a textbook example of “pine woods wiregrass range”. Sabine River, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), man-modified variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Brown et al. (1998) Oak-Pine Series converted into Pine Series by human management. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

41. Climax Loblolly Pine-Hardwood-Pinehill Bluestem Pineywoods Forest- Although not old-growth forest, this is a classic composite Pineywoods community with the species composition of the virgin vegetation. Loblolly pine is the major dominant thereby establishing this as the loblolly pine form of the Pineywoods Complex, but water oak is co-dominant while sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is well-represented among the trees. The shrub layer is dominated by wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). The herbaceous understory is remarkably diverse. Scattered small colonies of the rhizomatous decreaser pinehill bluestem (Andropogon divergens) serve as an indicator of what the climax dominant for this site should be. Other grasses include splitbeard bluestem, low or spreading panicgrass (Panicum rhizomatum),  longleaf uniola (Uniola sessiliflora), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum). Several Carex species are present with considerable cover. The conspicuous graminoid in the immediate foreground is a species of bulrush (Scirpus sp.).     This is a bottomland loblolly pine-hardwood forest on the flood plain of the Sabine River. It is the forest vegetation just below that seen in the previous slide. It is less apt to burn and has a more favorable soil moisture regime than the previous forest range type. Recent and recurrent fire had to have been part of the environment however to maintain this open understory and the fire-adapted grasses. Rather than wiregrass loblolly pine forest range this is the pinehill bluestem-Florida paspalum-low panicum understory. It is produces much higher quality and higher yielding forage. Both the bluestem and wiregrass Pineywoods range types are permanent forest range with a persistent grazable understory.This is climax loblolly pine-oak hardwood forest while the previous plant community was seral loblolly pine forest vegetation. Sabine River bottom, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Anthropogenic Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

42. Big Thicket loblolly pine woods- Exterior view of a loblolly pine-water oak subtype or variant of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type shjowing physiogonomy and botanical composition. At this edge (in a forest opening) young water oak, yaupon holly, and various herbaceous species and the layers they comprise provided an unusual composite "Big Picture" perspective of this forest range vegetation. The small oaks (pole-size) at base of pines were water oak. These young trees had not shed their dead leaves and even had a few persistent live leaves. Yaupon or yaupon holly composed almost all of the lower woody layer except for the regenerting oaks. Grasses were bushy and broomsedge bluestems and bentawn plumegrass. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

43. Edge of a loblolly pine-water oak forest- Detail of herbaceous and lower woody layers of the forest-clearing edge shown in the immediately preceding slide. Regenerated water oak saplings and yaupon made up a lower woody layer. Bentawn plumegrass and broomsedge bluestem and bushy beardgrass were the major herbaceous species. Pine seedlings bore witness to regeneration of loblolly pine. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Designations of this forest range vegetation were given in the preceding caption.

44. Inside with the pines and oaks- Interior of the loblolly pine-water oak forest introduced in the two preceding slides and their captions. American holly (Ilex opaca) was an associate tree species. A few individuals of regenerating American holly and dense yaupon holly made up most of the lower or secondary woody layer. Adequate light on the forest floor at this stage of vegetation development permitted regeneration of pine as well as persistence of an herbaceous understorey consisting of two or three layers. In the interior of this forest community that was more shaded or, same thing, less well-lite than the forest edges shown above, the dominant herbaceous plant was longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora) which "bumped out" the bluestem or beardgrass species and bentawn plumegrass. Other common to locally dominant herbaceous species included cottongrass bulrush, green flatsedge, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), redtop panicgrass (P. rigidulum), and brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatluum). These herbaceous species grew together on local habitats (microhabitats at about largest spatial scale) within this loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community. Most of these were not visible at scale of these two photographs, but they were featured below at scale of both herbaceous layers and individual plants. In the first of these two slides water oak and loblolly pine were visible as distinctive trees. The largest tree (left-of-center midground) was water oak. In the second of these photographs water oaks were relegated to midground and surrounded by loblolly pines. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly were widespread in the lower woody layer. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

45. Up close in the interior- Interior structure and species composition of a Big Thicket Pineywoods second-growth forest dominated by trees of loblolly pine, water oak, and American holly. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly made up bulk of lower woody layer(s). There was no reproduction of loblolly pine in the denser locale of the forest. Neither was there presence of herbaceous species. Foremost trunk (left foreground) and four pole-size trunks were loblolly pine. Largest tree with straight bole (left midground) was water oak as were the two small saplings still with green leaves growing between the foremost loblolly pine and the large water oak. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

.

46. Loblolly pine-water oak-American holly subtype of Big Thicket Pineywoods- All-in-one shot of an example of this variant of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type with yaupon and regenerating American holly comprising a lower woody layer and a local opening with longleaf woodoats and other herbaceous species. There was also much reproduction of water oak with numerous small saplings that had retained many of their leaves throughout the usually mild winter of the Big Thicket. Longleaf woodoats and local stands of other herbaceous species were also present though widely scattered. All of the larger trees in midground were water oak except for one loblolly pine. This was an example that the climatic climax of these forest type is oak and not pine. Both cover types of Loblolly Pine (SAF 81) and Loblolly Pine-Hardwood (SAF 82) (Eyre, 1980) are fire types (ie. only under conditions where fire overrides other components of climate) does this forest vegetation have loblolly pine as a dominant or co-dominant species into climax stage. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

47. Longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora)- Five plants of longleaf woodoats adorned the floor of a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly variant of the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82). Liberty County, Texas. February.

48. In a small clearing- A small clearing provided adequate light for local stands of herbaceous vegetation, woody layers made up of yaupon and regenerated water oak. At edge of clearing the woody shoot of rattan or Alabama supplejack was climbing a young loblolly pine (small pole in right midground). Species composition of the herbaceous layers was presented in the next slide. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

49. Something to graze- Two views of a local stand of herbaceous species in the understorey of the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest shown and described immediately above. Largest and most common species was cottongrass bulrush followed by green flatsedge, redtop panicgrass, and longleaf woodoats. The latter species more commonly grows by itself as shown above, but it frequently grows in association with other grasses and grasslike plants. Individual plants of the cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge introduced in these two photographs were shown in more detail in the succeeding four slides. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

50. Cottongrass bulrush, wooly-grass bulrush, or wool-grass (Scirpus cyperinus)- This was one of the most common and largest species of grasslike plants in much of the wetter environments of the loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type in the Big Thicket area of east Texas. Cottongrass bulrush was especially common (and locally dominant) on mesic to wet forest and range sites such as those for loblolly pine and the various forms of "oak flats" or "flatwoods". The individual plant presented in this and the two slides above the next caption was one of several specimens growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community featured above Liberty County, Texas. February.

51. Inflorescence of cottongrass bulrush- Two panicles on the same individual plant of cottongrass bulrush introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (one of several such bulrush plants shown in the two photographs preceding that last slide). More recent taxonomic treatments of the Scirpus species such as that by Diggs et al. (2006) have rearranged many of these once-upon-a-time Scirpus members into such genera as Schoenoplectus, Bolboschoenus, Isolepis, and even Eleocharis! Interestingly, in this bulrush basket upset cottongrass bulrush remained as Scirpus cyperinus (ie. still a true bulrush as it were). Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

52. Weathered flat- A highly weathered panicle of green flatsedge (Cyperus virens) in the local stand of herbaceous vegetation in the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest described herein. In the Illustrated Flora of East Texas Diggs et al. (2006) showed and mapped 19 species of flatsedge as occurring in the small Texas county of Liberty. Green flatsedge is one of the more common Cyperus species growing within the Big Thicket of the Texas Pineywoods. Liberty County, Texas. February.

53. Plumes in the pines- Panicles of bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest featured here. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) put Erianthus in with an expanded sugarcane genus (Saccharum spp.) and renamed bentawn plumegrass S. brevibarbe var. contortum. Diggs et al. (2006) listed and mapped four former Erianthus species as being in the Pineywoods, including Liberty County, Texas (county where these photographs were taken). Correll and Johnston (1979) in Manual of the Vascular Plant of Texas, still the statewide "bible" of plant taxa, listed three Erianthus species for this "neck of the woods". Erianthus species are some of the largest grasses native to the Pineywoods. E. contortus is probably the most common of these. Liberty County, Texas. February, hard-grain/shatter stage of phenology.

54. Beauty in the little things- Closeups of spikelets in the panicles of bentawn plumegrass shown immediately above. Liberty county, Texas. February, hard grains were shattering rapidly (lucky photographer preserved this lively scene for generations of grassmen).

55. Holly in the stand- Deeper inside the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly stand of flatwoods featured herein (and shown repeatedly above) American holly was becoming the local dominant tree species. Shrub-sized woody plants with persistent green leaves (foreground understorey) included young yaupon, water oak saplings, and American holly saplings and seedlings. Whereas tolerance rating for loblolly pine is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and water oak is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) , American holly is Very Tolerant which is the same as American beech, sugar maple, and flowering dogwood (Wenger, 1984). In absence of fire, windthrow, logging, and other disturbances (natural or anthropogenic) American holly (or other Very Tolerant species in the Big Thicket like American beech and southern magnolia) eventually become dominant as development of forest vegetation reaches climax. That phenomenon was shown in this photograph where the only seedlings present were those of American holly. The largest and foremost trunk (right foreground; smooth bark) was a nice, shaply specimen of American holly. This specific plant was used below to describe its species, including another view of this same bole. The medium-sized liana growing up the American holly was some species of grape (Vitis sp.). Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

56. "Hollyer" Pineywoods- On one local part of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly dominated stand shown and described above, American holly was becoming the climax dominant tree species. Saplings of American holly were more common than those of water oak and the only seedlings were those of American holly. There were no saplings (only pole-size trees) of loblolly pine, the tree which clearly dominated the canopy (with water oak as the local associate species) at this subclimax stage. Yaupon, the overall community dominant of a lower woody layer, was common and shared this layer with saplings of water oak and both saplings and seedlings of American holly as was just remarked. The adult American holly was the same individual whose trunk (with grape vine) was featured in the slide immediately above. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

57. Happy holly happenings- Regeneration (from seed) of American holly on floor of a subclimax loblolly pine-water oak forest. A young sapling of American holly represented the future generation of the climax dominant of this Pineywoods forest range. Yaupon holly, an individual of which was behind the featured holly sapling, was the overall dominant of a lower woody layer. American holly, a Very Tolerant tree species, had successfully reproduced even with this competition. The only herbaceous species was longleaf woodoats. Another photograph of a small American holly sapling was presented below to show details of holly leaves. The was the same stand of loblolly pine-water oak-American holly-yaupon-longleaf woodoats-bulrush-flatsedge Big Thicket flatwoods forest as featured above. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

58. Dynasty in the making- This large, symetrical American holly and its progeny (ranging from seedlings to small saplings) were the climax tree species and future dominant of a loblolly pin-water oak-American holly-yaupon holly- longleaf woodoats-bulrush forest range community. American holly is regarded as Very Tolerant (Wenger, 1984) so that in absence of disturbances (eg. repeated forest fires, forest harvests) the Intolerant loblolly pine (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and Intolerant water oak (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) will be succeeded by American holly. Successful regeneration of holly and absence of reproduction bf loblolly pine was shown in these two photographs. Numerous young plants of yaupon were also present. Besides showing regeneration of American holly, these two slides provided views of a mature American holly showing crown shape and branching pattern typical of this climax hardwood (angiosperm) species. Note that limbs and branches of the holly extended lower on the crown than did those of surrounding loblolly pine and water oak and that, overall, the crown of the holly was substantially larger and fuller than those of the two current dominants of the subclimax flatwoods forest. Liberty County, Texas. February.

59. Heir-apparent up close- Trunk of a mature American holly, the hardwood species that was successionally ascending to climax dominance with successful reproduction in shade of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly Pineywoods forest. Another view of this same trunk was presented above (complete with the same grape vine). Extent of shading of forest floor was also typical and indicative of a lower-layer forest environment in which only Toleranmt and Very Tolerant species could regenerate. Liberty County, Texas. February.

60. Tale of trauma with a position to teach- For reason(s) unknow to the photographer this sapling of American holly was leaning to the stage of being nearly "flat".In spite of such posture the young tree was otherwise "alive and well". The first slide of this sapling provided a better composite view than if it had been vertical like it should have been. The second photograph was a view of branches and leaves on this flattened sapling. Spiney margins of holly leaves were presented to rangemen and foresters unfamilar with this species. Liberty County, Texas. February.

61. Shinny holly leaves against a background of pine straw- Another small sapling (or large seedling) of American holly (Ilex opaca) growing in shade of loblolly pine, water oak, and its parent which was the large, symmetrical adult holly introduced above. Another living bit of evidence as to the Very Tolerant rating of American holly as well as an example of leaves of this species. Leaves of American holly are vriable in shape, but the margins have spines and are usually scalloped. Leaf blades are shiny green "on top" (upper surface) and pale underneath. This small tree was in the same flatwoods forest stand as shown and described above. Liberty County, Texas. February.

62. Yaupon or yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria)- Yaupon is one of the most aggressive shrubs in the understorey of the various pine and oak-pine types of the eastern deciduous forest in southeastern North America. It is usually not a dominant shrub in advanced stages of forest succession, but disturbances like logging (and subsequent regeneration methods) shift competitive advantage to this rapidly spreading, evergreen scrub holly allowing it to become a major brush species on regenerating forests and transitory forest ranges. The individual shown here had persisted late into the rotation of a loblolly pine forest. International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. May.

10247 and 10248.

Girls' time- Flowers at peak-bloom stage on a female yaupon. Yaupon is a dioecious species. Details of a female plant in full bloom were presented. International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas.April.

63.Yaupon leader- Leaves and fruits (drupes) of yaupon. Yaupon is dioecious. The drupes are a favored food of numerous species of songbirds and even furbearers like coons. Browse value of yaupon is often rated as good for deer and fair for livestock though some dispute this. Heavy livestock grazing early in the forest rotation is often an effective means of yaupon control. International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. January.

64. Longleaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora)- This is one of the more common and important grass species in the shortleaf pine and pine-oak forests. It responds quickly with vigorous growth and reproduction to clearcutting and thinning operations in these forest cover types. Red River County, Texas. July.

65. Loblolly pine flatwoods- Example of the "pure" cover type of loblolly pine (SAF 82) made up this flatwoods forest community in the Big Thicket. Young, second-growth loblolly pines comprised the entire canopy (crown) layer while yaupon made up the lower woody layer and giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) comprised most of the herbaceous layer. Perennial grasses such as longleaf woodoats and grasslike plants like cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge which were common on adjacent and close proximity forests of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) were much less dense on this forest range stocked with younger (smaller) trees. On local areas most disturbed by forest harvest activities there were some individuals of broomsedge and bushy beardgrass with fewer plants of longleaf woodoats and even density of bentawn plumegrass. While there were widely scattered water oaks stocking of this species was so slight that this forest was a loblolly pine cover type. Selective (uneven-aged) harvest had taken place on this forest three or four years earlier. Hence, pioneer establishment of the giant ragweed and subsequent release of yaupon. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

66. Not sharing much- Stand of young loblolly pine on a flatwoods form of Big Thicket Pineywoods resulted in a nearly exclusionary crop, a single-species stand, with almost complete canopy cover of this shade-intolerant subclimax species. Yaupon had developed into a lower woody layer that was sporadic ranging frrom nearly absent to local heavy cover/dense shoots (as in the second of these two slides). Major grass overall was longleaf woodoats though it was absent from local areas of more extreme disturbance. Broomsedge and bushy bluestem were present (some shoots were visible in these and the preceding photograph) on the more seriously disturbed areas, but their cover and density could be described as "few and far between". Plants of bentawn plumegrass were even more uncommon. Loblolly pines of about all one size (poles) and evidence of high degree of disturbance of soil surface indicated that the clearcutting method of regeneration had been used in silvicultural treatment. This was more obvious int the second of these two photographs. The largest tree in second photograph (right midground) was a water oak that had been spared in the recent clear-cutting operation because it was of no value for pulp or poles (ie. a trash tree). It presence and that of scattered water oak seedlings indicated that this was a subclimax loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) maintained by silviculture as a loblolly pine forest type (SAF 88). Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

67. Inside the loblolly pine stand- Interior of a single-species stand of young (pole-size) loblolly pine. Yaupon formed a sporadic woody understorey or lower woody (shrub) layer. Otherwise this vegetation was loblolly pine cover type (SAF 82) of an industrial or commercial forest where maximum financial return from the forest resulted from establishment and maintenance of single-species stands (= populations) of loblolly pine. In other words, this was a "rough" form of a loblolly pine planation established by natural regeneration. This form of silviculture (clearcutting method) produced denser stands of loblolly pine with more shade and therefore less herbaceous vegetation, especially less cover and lower density of grasses and grasslike plants, for grazing animals. Larger-size clearings and greater disturbance with more bare soil did, however, create better habitat for pioneer species like giant ragweed and this resulted in superior habitat for some kinds of wildlife like bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). Presence of saplings of water oak was proof that this was a loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) maintained as the more "pure" loblolly pine forest type (SAF 82) as an economic forest crop (ie. pine wood was more valuable than that from oak in the current market). This loblolly pine stand was in close proximity to the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest displayed and discussed above. Yaupon was common and formed a lower woody layer. Dwarf palmetto was also present though mostly as isolated plants. There was less longleaf woodoats, broomsedge and bushy bluestem, bentawn plumegrass, cottongrass bulrush, and sedges and flatsedges than on the nearby loblolly pine-hardwood (water oak and American holly) forest. The most common herbaceous plant on this recently harvestly forest was giant ragweed. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Classification units of this forest range vegetation were presented in the two immediately preceding photo captions.

68. Loblolly pine-dominated backwater forest- Another form or subtype(s) of loblolly pine forest range (though one with minimal grazing and browsing resources) in the Pineywoods Region is that (those) that develop on land having ponded water for prolonged periods though not for periods of time consistent with those of swamps. In fact, the common name of loblolly comes from the condition known as a loblolly, a term referring to a mudhole or deep mud puddle, which is an ideal edphic condition for this species (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 93). This is an exterior view of a loblolly pine-dominated forest that developed on a backwater of the San Jacinto River. Hardly visible on disturbed, bare soil in foreground are many pine seedlings indicative of extensive regeneration of the dominant tree species.Bare limbs and branches are those of water oak, overcup or swamp white oak, and black gum (= black tupelo), the associate species. This forest range vegetation would have to be described as a loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-dwarf palmetto forest. It was another form or variant of flatwoods forest. Montgomergy County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

69. Next crop of the dominant native and a naturalized alien- At the edge (exterior) of the backwater Pineywoods forest introduced immediately above numerous large seedlings of loblolly (midground) illustrated regeneration by sexual reproduction of this conifer that was dominant in this forest range community. Although both loblolly pine and water oak are rated as Intolerant and subclimax (discussed above for a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest), on this river backwater wetland these two tree species were climax dominants due to natural protection from severe fire and/or as an edaphic climax. Overcup oak and black tupelo were associate species. The green leaves in background were those of yaupon holly which comprised a lower woody or shrub layer. Dwarf palmetto (none present in this photograph) formed a second shrub lower in height than the yaupon. (These two lower woody layers of vegetation were presented in the immediately succeeding slide.) At local scale there were sapling- and pole size trees of water oak, overcup oak, and blackgum (indicative of regeneration of these hardwood species later than loblolly pine in this sere) that formed a second tree layer. This was not consistent throughout this vegetation. The large cespitose grass in foreground was a specimen of Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), an introduced or agronomic forage species that is now naturalized throughout the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana. Over its much of its naturalized range Vaseygrass is a highly productive, welcome addition to the often sparse herbaceous understorey of the Pineywoods region. Vaseygrass was dealt with in the chapter, Introduced Forages, under Grasslands. Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

70. Interior of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods-palmetto flatwoods forest- Inside look at the forest range vegetation introduced in the preceding two photographs. This "photo plot" provided a nearly comprehensive sample of the species composition of Pineywoods pine-hardwoods forest. There was no regeneration of the Intolerant loblolly pine beneath canopy of pine, water oak, overcup oak, and black tupelo in contrast to "doghair" stands of seedlings at edge or exterior of this stand as shown above. Saplings and pole-size trees of water, overcup oak and, to lesser extent, black tupelo were present indicating that these hardwood species had regenerated later than loblolly pine in seral development of this forest vegetation. Younger trees of these woody angiosperms did not form a continuous lower tree layer, but this vegetational strata was frequently present. Dwarf palmetto and yaupon made up two lower shrub layers in this vegetation. Two saplings in foreground were overcup oak (left) and water oak (right). Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

71. Structure and species composition of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest- Two views of lower layers of vegetation in a seasonal wetland forest of loblolly pine, water oak, overcup oak, black tupelo, yaupon, and dwarf palmetto. Large trunk was loblolly pine. On-going regeneration of palmetto was obvious from numerous seedlings of this shrub (eg. in front of pine trunk). Herbaceous species were absent from forest floor which was covered with leaves of tree species. Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

72. Twixt the pines- Among large loblolly pine dwarf or swamp palmetto made up a lower shrub layer (lower than yaupon which constituted another shrub layer) throughout a backwater flatwoods forest. Also below the older (larger) and more scattered pines, water and overcup oak (with occasional black tupelo) formed a discontinuous lower tree layer. Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. Various units of forest range vegetation were listed in preceding photo captions.

73. Loblolly Pine-Mixed Hardwood Wet Forest- Loblolly pine is the most common and economically important pine in east Texas. It often grows on well-drained soils, but it is also the Pinus species best adapted to wet, even ponded, sites in the Pineywoods. On this regenerated second-growth forest loblolly pine is the dominant species but shares the forest with numerous associated angiosperm species including water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) in the overstory with an understory limited to a shrub layer of the small American holly (Ilex opaca) and a lower layer of pine seedlings with sedges and rushes. Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Forest cover type is best described as SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood), but it has elements of SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in location of their Pine Series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

74. Loblolly Pine-Oak Hardwood Forest in Texas Pineywoods- On this wet, often ponded, site loblolly pine is co-dominant with numerous hardwood species including cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia), water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, water hickory or bitter pecan (Carya aquatica), and sweet gum. The woody understory consist largely of regenerating species of the dominants just listed. Herbs consist of sedges, rushes, and scattered small individuals of the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea). Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Appears to be a transition or “hybrid” between SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) and SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in region of their Pine Series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

75. White umbrella sedge or white-top sedge (Dichromenta latififolia)- The striking bright corolla of this member of the Cyperaceae has prompted wild flower enthusiasts to regard this grass-like plant as a “wild flower”. It is restricted to wet open habitats as an understory to the more open loblolly pine-hardwood forests forms growing on poorly drained sites like that seen immediately above. Hardin County, Texas. May.

Although loblolly pine is well-adapted to wet soils (as suggested by the designation of "loblolly" in reference to deep mud hole or large mud puddle) is also occupies and even dominates less moist sites. On moist, but well-drained upland habitats throughout the extensive, eastern deciduous forest region loblolly pine frequently grows with various associated species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) explained that for the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) there is a "spectrum of moisture regimes and sites" with hardwood species varying according to these gradients. White oak is one of the more widespread component hardwood species on direr upland sites. Throughout much of the Pineywoods white oak is a major--often dominant--species on various forest cover types including shortleaf pine as well as loblolly pine. Forests of white oak and shortleaf pine (with associated species) were treated later on in this chapter. Natural vegetation of an upland (well-drained) forest subtype that was composed of white oak and loblolly pine was presented and described immediately below. This "vegetational sampler" was typical of the interrupted or variously scattered forest communities in the southcentral portion of the Oak-Pine Forest Region in which loblolly pine serves to charactrize this transition from Oak-Hickory Region to the Oak-Pine Region (Braun, 1950, p. 259, 278-279).

76. Upland loblolly pine-white oak forest- Composite view of an upland Pineywoods forest above a small stream in which loblolly pine and white oak were do-dominants of the the canopy layer with progressively lower vegetational layers formed by sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) as a lower tree layer; yaupon holly as a shrub layer; Walter's greenbriar (Smilax walteri), some species of grape (Vitis sp.), and rattan or Alabama supplejack as multi-layer (ground to canopy) shrubs; and a sparse-barely present herb layer made up mostly of longleaf woodoats. Leavaes of tree and shrub species covered the ground level (soil surface) to such degree as to exclude most herbaceous species, including individuals of longleaf woodoats (generally the dominant herb). The small tree with green-tinged, smooth bark and arching over the stream (lower right corner) and the two two smaller trees on the opposite (left) bank were individuals of sweetbay. A woody shoot of grape was in center foreground. The green zone of vegetation was produced by green leaves of the evergreen yaupon. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

77. Up and above a "crick"- Stand of loblolly pine and white oak on an upland site immediately above a small creek in Pineywoods of east Texas. Vertical view of the same forest introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (and from the same-- though closer-in-- vantagepoint) to better show structure and layering of this forest range vegetation. Woody vines of grape and smaller ones of rattan were in foreground. Limb in upper right corner was of sweetbay, the smaller tree species that constituted a lower tree layer of this forest community. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

78. Lumberman's view of a loblolly pine-white oak upland forest- Structure and species composition of an upland white oak-loblolly pine form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwood dominance type. Larger trunks in both photographs are loblolly pine. Ph;otographed immediately following heavy rain shower so bark over some long strip-line areas of pine trunks was darker. Sweetbay formed an interrupted second tree layer. These were present as smaller, shorter trees (large saplings or pole-size: two in front of and to left of foremost pine in first slide; whitish trunk in foreground of second slide). An upper shrub (lower woody) layer comprised of yaupon was not distinct in these slides, but was shown in the six slides of immediately succeeding three sets of slides. Ground surface was covered with mulch or duff layer formed from shed leaves of all species. There was a very sparse understorey made up mostly of Walter's greenbriar that was more shrub than herb. A very sparse, intermittent herbaceous layer was composed mostly of longleaf woodoats (an individual of this species was to immediate left and upslope of the sweetbay in foreground of second slide). There were even more scattered individuals of some unidentifiable Carex species. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

79. Ground level view of a lobolly pine-white oak upland forest- Species make-up and layer arrangement of an upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest was shown to good advantage. This forest community was in the unique Big Thicket portion of the Pineywoods and was featured in this segment of discussion devoted to loblolly pine. Loblolly pine is typically a subclimax stage of forest in the vast eastern deciduous forests of North America. Successional status of white oak varies considerably. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

80. Shrubs beneath the pine and oak- Yaupon or yaupon holly made up a shrub layer in the upland loblolly pine-white oak dominated (canopy or cover dominance) forest that had developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket portion of Texas' Pineywoods. This specific forest stand was shown and described in detail above and below. Liberty County, Texas. February. Various classification units of this forest vegetation were presented in photo captions herein.

81. Walk through the upland woods- A series opf three photographs taken from about the same angle presented structure and species composition of vegetation in an loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-liana-yaupon- longleaf woodoats upland forest in the Big Thicket portion of the Texas Pineywoods. This "photo stroll" centered on a large white oak (largest tree trunk) near center of photographs. The bark on this old and still alive white oak had sloughed off in patches which were accentuated by a heavy rain moments before this series of photographs was taken. Smaller, shorter trees were sweetbay which made an interruped lower tree layer.Yaupon formed a shrub layer throughout. A "top-to-bottom" (ground-to-crown canopy) shrub layer consisted of grape, rattan or Alabama supplejack, and Walter's greenbriar. Leaves of all species produced a ground cover layer so thick that there were very few herbaceous species. The most common herb was the perennial grass, longleaf woodoats. Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

82. Fire-scarred forest veteran- An old white oak on a loblolly pine-white oak dominated upland forest bore testimony to the frequency of past fires. As a general rule, fire in the hardwood-pine cover types of the North American or eastern deciduous forests selects for greater proportions (crown cover, density, dominance, etc.) of pine rather than hardwood species such as the various oaks and hickories. This is most true for the extremely fire-tolerant longleaf pine, but even less fire-tolerant pines like loblolly generally benefit at competitive expense of the angiosperm trees. Furthermore, susceptibility to fire is greater for seedlings, saplings, and small poles than adult hardwood trees. Once hardwoods become established and grow larger they are less susceptible to fire-damage and death. The ole patriarch of this upland loblolly pine-hardwood forest had obviously been through several surface fires. Past surface fires had burned through the bark of this large white oak which, however, survived quite well as most of its cambium tissue had not been injured. White oak has a variable tolerance response, but is generally rated as Intermediate (in contrast to Intolerance of loblolly pine). White oak is somewhat more tolerant than loblolly pine to drought (Moderate-tolerant vs. Moderate, respectively) while loblolly pine is much more flood tolerant (Moderately vs. Intolerant of white oak) (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-8). Frequent fire shifts the forest environment in favor of loblolly pine. Leafy plants at base of the white oak were small individuals of yaupon. Sapling behind and to right of white oak was sweetbay, the major species of the lower tree layer. Liberty County, Texas. February.

83. Walter's greenbriar, coral or red-bead greenbriar,, or sarsaparilla (Smilar walteri)- One of several Smilax species in the Pineywoods Region. This one generally prefers moist to wet habitats, including sandy soils along streams such as that in the loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-yaupon upland forest described here. Liberty County, Texas. February.

84. Nitty gritty of Walter's greenbriar- Details of leaves and stems of Walter's greenbriar which is only one of various Smilax species in the eastern deciduous forest of North America. This was growing in the understorey of a loblolly pine-white oak-dominated upland forest that developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket. Liberty County, Texas. February.

Agriculture in southeastern North America (the Southeast) has changed continuously-- often radically-- over the course of history. Without going back to pre-Columbian (prehistoric) times and Indian days and the colonial period it was sufficient to remark that much of what was known generally (and simplistically) as the Cotton Belt has been one of the continent's agricultural regions most changed by socioeconomic and biological forces. Where it was first the "precious stink of tobaccy" and later King Cotton "the southeastern sector" is now one of the most diverse agricultural regions in North America. Probably nothing as so changed in the agriculture of the Old South as the shift from field, mostly row, crops to industrial forestry and, usually integrated with forest cropping, beef cattle production. Development of permanent pastures based on improved, introduced tropical and subtropical grasses like bermudagrass, bahiagrass, dallisgrass, and vaseygrass along with tall fescue and Kentucky bluegrass went side-by-side with scientific forest management and a sustainable forest industry producing wood for pulp, post, poles, naval stores, and about anything else imaginable. Other agricultural changes that at first might appear to be unrelated to those of the old Cotton Kingdom were in reality direct "directing forces" in the diversified agriculture of the South that slowly "rose again". Development of a concentrated, intensively managed cattle-feeding industry in the Great Plains of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, and Kansas was one example. This post-World War II phenomenon provided a ready made market outlet for Okie feeder calves from Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, etc. while the surrounding wheat fields were pastures without peer for the Okie "threes and fours" which were to be the stockers not yet ready for "prime time" in the feedlots. Development and ever-newer improvements in the Forestry and Agronomy of the South (including the Border States like Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Missouri) were joined with improvements in Range Management. The following section presented in photograph and discussion some of the major parts of this integrated agriculture that was a region-wide form of agropastoralsilviculture long before such terms became popular or were even recognized as such.

Recall from the introduction to this section that Braun (1950) recognized nine sections of the eastern deciduous forest formation. Two of these comprise-- more or less-- the forests of the Southeast that include sizable components of pine (Pinus) species: 1) Oak-Pine Forest Region and 2) Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region. This part of the Southeast could be viewed conveniently as the "pineywoods" part of the eastern deciduous forest formation or "super-region", as indeed it has long been known in Texas. This has also been known traditionally as the Southern Pine Region. It is mostly this part of the Southeast, especially in less economically developed areas, in which industrial or commercial forestry is a-- often, the-- major industry and certainly the more important part of agriculture in general. It was loblolly pine (Pinus taedna), including hybrids thereof, more than any other single species that literally revolutionized commercial forestry in the Southeast. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) was the other major commercial conifer of this region, specifically the southeasternmost part including Florida and the Carolinas. In the more northern and western portions of the Southeast shortleaf pine (P. echinata) was the native species and it has remained the major commercial conifer in certain locations. The fourth native pine having some commercial value in industrial forestry is longleaf pine (P. palustris). Following logging of the virgin forest, the slower-growing (but often having the superior wood) longleaf pine was in most areas the least economical species for commercial wood production. Shortleaf pine is the least likely of the major pines of the Southern Pine Region to suffer damage or death from ice storms that are only all too frequent especially in the more northern zones of the region. Slash pine is typically the most extensively damaged by ice storms. Ice damage also limits commercial production of longleaf pine, as does it's slow growth rate relative to loblolly and slash pine and silvicultural problems associated with propagation/planting. Slower growth rate is also a factor limiting the industrial production of shortleaf pine. A good-- thorough but concise-- guide to the feasibility of the various pines for production in industrial forestry can be found in Fowells (1965) and Burns and Honkala (1990), the definitive reference on the silvics and silviculture of forest trees in North America. Wahlenberg (1960) and Schultz (1997) are probably the two comprehensive treatments of loblolly pine forestry. Another classic reference, whose name says just what it is (one hallmark of a classic), would have to be The Genetics and Breeding of Southern Pines (Dorman, 1976). The definitive authority on southern pine ranges and their management is Pearson et. al. (1987).

The following sequence showed the harvest of loblolly pine by the clearcutting silvicultural method and subsequent site preparation for the next pine crop. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

85. Landing in loblolly pine forest- A landing is the point to which logs, poles, pulpwood, etc. is brought for delivery to the mill. In this scene loblolly pine logs were skidded and loaded on the truck by a log self-loader operator. Miller County, Arkansas. July.

86. Skidding logs to the truck- Skidding (also called yarding or forwarding) is the hauling of logs, poles or so on to the landing which is the collection or loading point for transport of logs to the mill. A rubber tired-skidder brought loblolly pine logs to the landing for loading onto the logging truck. Miller County, Arkansas. July.

87. Loading logs with a self-loader- A knuckleboom loader mounted on the logging truck was being used to load logs on the truck for transport to the mill. A knuckleboom (= hydraulic loader) is a loader that swings when used for loading and has hydraulic controls that activate boom members (the tongs or jaws). Miller County, Arkansas. July.

88. Slash at the landing- Slash is the logger's term for the limbs, branches, tops, parts of roots, waste logs, etc. remaining on the land surface after harvesting saw timber, pulpwood, etc. It is the forestry equivalent of stubble, straw, stalks, etc. remaining on the soil of a farm field. In both cases this residue must be managed in preparation for planting the next crop. It can be beneficial in reducing soil erosion, adding organic matter, and protecting the new seedlings, but such trash can interfere with planting or seeding operations. Miller County, Arkansas. July.

89. Oak-hickory-pine forest after harvest of loblolly pine- Where the potential natural forest vegetation is a hardwood-pine cover type (ie. "pineywoods") pines are usually the designated or intended crop and the hardwoods are weed trees. Weed trees are any species of tree (or large shrub), and the individual plants of these species, that have little value (or their value is less than-- cannot offset-- their disadvantages); used especially when these woody weeds compete with the intended forest crop. This latter is known as crop tree, any individual tree or tree species chosen to be part of the future forest harvest. Some weed trees grow even under the most intensive forest management practices. These weed trees must be controlled before the next tree crop can be planted. This is true from standpoint of both 1) competition to planted seedlings or seedings from pre-existing, established, and much larger trees (for light, water, soil minerals, etc.) and 2) operating planting equipment, movement of tree-planter, workers, and so on. One of the major points of contention among conservationists involved management of weed trees. Foresters who favor less intensive forest management (especially less radical or disruptive silvicultural methods), wildlifers, some watershed experts, and lay people who enjoy the varying and seasonal color changes of the deciduous species want a higher proportion of hardwood species growing with the pines. Foresters who favor the more intensive management of industrial forests (eg. shorter rotations, higher degree of control of pathogens and insect pests, and generally "cleaner" or "neater" forests opt for fewer weed trees). Forests managed from the latter perspective are often plantations of one (or very few) species, especially pines, hence pine plantation. These monocultures (where there is one crop tree species such as loblolly pine) are literally tree farms. (This should not to be confused with the registered Tree Farm trade mark of the American Tree Farm System although some of these may be registered or generally comply with those guidelines). They are the forestry equivalent of the agronomic single species of field crop (corn, cotton, wheat). As with every other form of commercial agriculture in industrialized democracies, market economics has consistently favored ever-increasing intensification of food and fiber production with the result that wood crops have been produced under more intensive foret management, especially tree breeding and silviculture. This has not been completely successful with any form of agriculture whether tree farming, fish farming, game bird farming, or broiler and pork production under total confinement systems, but this industrial agriculture has produced the most economical food and fiber for the consumer as she has continued to "shell out" less of her disposable income for food, clothing, lumber, and computer paper with each passing year. More recently certain factors, both biological, chemical-physical, and socioeconomic, slowed the trend of increasing intensification of production, at least somewhat. Endangered species management, more emphasis on aesthetics and recreation, and less concern about price of goods and services may well create a demand in the market place of forest products (not just wood commodities) for a "New Forestry" or a "Forestry for the 21st Century". If consumers are willing to put their money where their mouth (and their vote) is and "play fair" by the rules of a democratic free market so as to pay for the increased cost of products and services in order to enjoy more "natural" forests, foresters and forest firms will rise to the occasion as they did in wise-use conservation for economically efficient wood production. If, on the other hand, the consumer is an irresponsible customer and seeks to be a free-rider and stupidly expects the forest products industry to continue providing economical wood products plus other forest amenities at the same prices (ie. the addded costs are paid entirely by the industry) the system will fail. Natural resources are not free goods; all who use them must pay a fair price. That is a fundamental rule of the woods. That is the system, economic and ecosystem. Back to the weed trees: they must be removed for proper site preparation. Miller County, Arkansas. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

90. Site preparation- A small loblolly pine clear-cut with weed trees (hardwood species, mostly oak) removed. This was a portion of the pine-harvested forest with hardwoods left standing shown in the preceding slide. This part of the forest was in a later phase of site preparation for planting the next crop of loblolly pine. In this part of the "pine field" silvicultural scarification has been completed. Scarifiction in this usage means the physical removal of slash (or related debris) and competing plants (eg. weed trees, shrubs) and/or physical disturbance or disruption of the land surface as one of the practices in site preparation. Site preparation is the manipulation, usually limited in meaning to physical (manual or mechanized) and chemical treatment, of the site (the land) on which reforestation is to occur. Site preparation is the equivalent of seedbed preparation in production of field crops. Site preparation treatments include all those associated with scarification and readying of the soil surface for planting or seeding (eg. brush or weed tree control, disking, chopping, brush raking, tile drainage, terracing). These modifications to soil, land shape, slash (litter), and remaining plants are performed to improve microsite conditions in which the new trees will began their growth. The forest management objective is enhanced regeneration of the crop trees (recall definition from preceding slide caption). The land seen here is not in the final stage of site preparation. Slash has been piled for burning, but the piles contained enough soil that combustion will be incomplete, and the soil will have to be redistributed back over the land. This procedure exposed soil to erosion but there was probably enough slash residue to prevent accelerated erosion. Such tillage of the soil can be beneficial (it was part of the scarification procedure) and is often essential for successful regeneratioin of species that evolved under disturbances like flooding (eg. coast redwoods) or fire (pines with serotinous cones like some lodgepole genotypes). This was explained in discussions of these species elsewhere in this publication. Miller County, Arkansas. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem. K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

91. Proper site preparation- Appearance of a "field", the site, ready to be replanted to loblolly pine. This land is in the final state or last stage of site preparation. Replanting of loblolly pine seedlings will begin soon. Note the amount of "crop residue", slash, remaining on the soil surface. Erosion will be minimum with this residue covering the soil and acting as small "dams" or "windbreaks" to slow movement of water and wind that could carry soil particles. Also, this modifies the microenviornment where replanted conifers will grow and develop, thereby increaing the chances of regeneration of the crop trees (ie. improve the odds of making the next crop). Hardwood tree and shrub species have already resprouted or germinated. This means that conifer seedlings will be in intense competition as soon as they are planted and/or germinate. Efficient regeneration of loblolly pine under these conditions will usually require some brush (weed tree) control either by herbicides or cattle-grazing. This was discussed below (and for several conifer species and different forest cover types such as the Sierra Nevada mixed conifer type). In the case of grazing by cattle (as well as native whitetail deer of course) the stage of reforestation displayed in this slide was the start of transitory forest range, native plants on forestland that can (will) be used as forage and/or browse only as long as the forest canopy formed by crowns of trees (loblolly pine in this instance) does not close enough to prevent light from reaching lower layers of the vegetation. Once enough light is intercepted by the crowns of the ever-growning tree layer(s) --resulting in elimination of grazable or browsable layers-- the forest no longer produces native vegetation available for use by range animals. An understorey (understorey layers) capable of being used as forage and/or browse by wildlife or livestock no longer exist. The forest range is gone. It has been replaced by another seral stage or by the climax of that sere. In other words, such forest range is a stage or a series of stages in secondary plant succession that produces vegetation that can be consumed by grazers and/or browsers until it is evenutually replaced by climax or a higher seral stage that is incapable of producing feed for range animals. Stages in the development of forest vegetation that do produce such forage and/or browse are thus in transition to a closed-canopy forest. In other words, it is successional, sub-climax range that is transitory-- in a state of transition-- to more successionally advanced vegetation that lacks an understorey. Transitory forest range is not permanent range. Some forest range types (eg. longleaf pine and parklike ponderosa pine forests) are permanent. A number of these were discussed throughout the Forests and Woodlands portion of this publication. Many of the forest ranges of the Southern Pine Region are transitory ranges. In these instances, such as the one shown in the next slide, man the forester facilitated succession or grew a disturbance climax that no longer had an understorey layer. Earlier generations learned from Plant Ecology (Weaver and Clements, 1938, ps.238, 271-273) that this was an example of human coaction, an advanced process in plant succession leading to stabilization. Vernon Parish, Louisiana. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

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92. Pine nursery- Nursery stock for artificial regeneration. In tree nursuries, fields such as the one shown here have seeds of the desired species planted in rows. Seedlings are allowed to reach heights of about 10-15 inches (maybe slightly more) then they are lifted and bound in bundles of a certain number (commonly 50 seedlings at this nursery). The seedlings are transported to the site (the "field") on which they are to be planted. Planting can be done by tractor-drawn implements (commonly called tree planters) or by hand using various tools such as tree-planting bars, hoedads, or spades. Bundles of seedlings (typically of several species) are packaged together and routinely shipped by surface mail, especially to small private landowners for reforesting relatively small acreages. Commercial lumber and pulp companies often have their own nurseries, of their own selected germ plasm. This nursery field had both loblolly and shortleaf pine seedlings (growing in the center rows) and black locust and bois-d'arc or Osage orange (these latter two species visible at far left as the taller seedlings). This was a state forestry nursery funded by tax dollars and minimal prices for seedlings. It exist primarily to provide trees for replanting on private, non-commercial (ie. smaller) forest tracts. Oklahoma Forestry Division, State Department of Agriculture. July

93. Young loblolly pine seedlings growing in a state forestry nursery- These trees will be sold at minimal (tax-subsidized) cost to private landowners for reforestation. This nursery stock method is the standard form of artificial regeneration for species of southern pines. (An erratic stand by standards of corn and cotton fields.) Standard three and a half inch stockman's knife for scale. Oklahoma Forestry Division, State Department of Agriculture. July.

94. Loblolly pine plantation- This is a forest planting neighboring on the area shown in the preceding photograph. It is a six to (at most) ten-year-old loblolly pine plantation. The pines were large enough that they were experiencing relatively little competition from weed trees, brushy shrubs, or grass. The pines were also large enough that there was not much forage and/or browse remaining in the plantation. Cover of loblolly pines, which had limbs to the ground, was so nearly complete that forest plants usable for forage and/or browse had been reduced nearly to point of exclusion by interception of light by the planted pines. The loblolly pines had grown enough to exclude light from the ground around them and little of the grazable/browsable understorey remained. Here was an example of where man the manipulator of ecosystems accelerated the rate of secondary plant succession while producing a crop that could be characterized as a disturbance climax or a subclimax (Weavaer and Clements, 1938, p. 81, 86-88). This resulted in a marked degree of stabilization, the most advanced process in plant succession (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 234). The Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) defined a plantation as "a stand composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding" and specified that "a plantation may have tree or understorey components that have resulted from natural regeneration" and that it "may be pure or mixed species, treated to have uniform or diverse structure and age classes". Most of the loblolly plantations like the one seen in this slide are monocultures with a single age class and one simultaneous harvest (ie. even--aged management with the classic pattern of clear-cutting). Vernon Parish, Louisiana. July. Western Coastal Plains ecological section. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

95. Reproduction of loblolly pine by natural seeding- A dog-hair stand of loblolly pine developed on a road-cut from seeds in the soil seedbank and those newly shed by existing trees. Silvicultural systems for production of loblolly pine vary but, as is the case for industrial forestry in general throughout the Southern Pine Region, commercial regeneration (silvicultural establishment of the next tree crop) and the major regeneration or reproduction method became the pine plantation sysem of even-aged clearcutting and replanting. Replanting of nursery stock (young tree raised in tree nurseries from seed) became established quite early in the development of scientific forestry in the Southeast because it provided the opportunity to use improved, faster-growing genotypes (including hybrids) as well as increasing chances of tree establishment and a future wood crop. Smith (1986, p. 372) explained that production of loblolly and slash pine by clearcutting and planting was "the most important American manifestation of the general use of this silvicultural method". Loblolly pine does, however, reproduce readily from seed as shown in this photograph. This is even more the case when competing hardwood species are reduced by prescribed burning or mechanical site preparation (as was the inadvertant result of the road construction that eliminated all competing plants and exposed mineral soil). Loblolly pine has also been established by artificial aerial seeding, but this practice was discontinued and was replaced by planting nursery stock to get properly spaced trees of superior germ plasm. Regeneration of loblolly pine from seed (naturally or artificially) results in stands of densities greater than those that are optimum for rapid tree growth and shorter rotations. It not only creates such dog-hair stands that pines are crowded and stunted, it also results in develop of a closed tree canopy early in development of vegetation and exclusion of an understorey capable of being used as transitory forest range. Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. July. Red River Alluvial Plain ecological section. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).

96. Thinned out- Stand of loblolly pine thinned for optimum growth of individual trees and wood yield. Yaupon holly comprised a lower, second woody layer. Herbaceous understorey consisted of a diversity of grasses including especially longleaf woodoats, panicgrasses (Panicum and Dichanthium spp.), and paspalums (Paspalum spp. including the naturalized Vaseygrass) along with sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.) and spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.). Within a relatively short period (probably less than 10-15 years) this stand will become a closed canopy monoculture of plantation loblolly pine like that shown immediately below. Hardin County, May, estival aspect. Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

97.Loblolly forest at mature stage relative to harvest (mainly pulp wood)- Closed canopy forest that is totally devoid of understory. Stands of loblolly pine such as this essentially single-species stand are transitory range that is grazable/browswable only until the upperstory of trees closes thereby depriving understory layers (often even shrub stories) of light. Houston County, Texas.March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

98. Small clear-cut of loblolly pine like that pictured in previous slide- What slash is not used locally as fire wood following pole and/or pulp wood harvest will be burned and the site prepared for replanting which is typically artificial propagation (planting of nursery grown seedlings rather than natural regeneration by seeding from adjacent or scattered remaining trees). Liberty County, Texas. March. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem).K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest).SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

99. A loblolly pine plantation eight years following planting of seedlings in a clear-cut like the one immediately above— The plantation understory is being grazing by cattle as a means of biological control of the fiercely competitive weed tree, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), as well as utilization of the native grasses that vary from climax Andropogon and Panicum species to the the threeawns or wiregrasses and crabgrasses (Digitaria spp.). Little bluestem and broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) are the dominant grasses shown here. Native hickory and oak species have regenerated by both coppice sprouting and seedling emergence yet are less a brush problem than seral sweetgum.This illustrates that oak and hickory species are natural dominants of the climax and that the human inputs of forest management are essential to economically raise the crops of pines which are minor climax dominants relative to the hardwoods.Note preferencial grazing first of grasses and secondly of browsing on hardwoods. Pines have not been browsed. Loblolly pine transitory range.Weyerheuser-contracted crop. LeFlore County, Oklahoma. May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ouachita Mountains- Athens Plateau Ecoregion, 36a (Woods et al., 2005).

100. Transitory forest range in a 10 to12 year-old hybrid loblolly pine plantation showing ungrazed understory that is tallgrass prairie of little bluestem, big bluestem, broomsedge bluestem, Indiangrass, and side-oats grama. Hardwood species like oaks, hickories, and sweetgum are totally absent due largely to previous heavy browsing by cattle.Weyerheuser trees.McCurtain County, Oklahoma. July. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Cretaceous Dissected Uplands Ecoregion, .35d (Woods et al., 2005).

101. Loblolly pine regeneration (and competition) in cut-over forest- Natural regeneration of loblolly pine from seed following clearcutting (even-aged regeneration method). The pines are in competition and face the threat of wild fire from the lush growth of native grasses including broomsedge bluestem (the most abundant grass), splitbeard bluestem, big bluestem, plus various species of Panicum, Paspalum, and Sporobolus.

102. Vulnerable to fire- Close-up view of a loblolly pine seedling in the cut-over forest shown immediately above. This silvic baby is about as vulnerable as a newborn lamb. The seedling was surrounded by broomsedge bluestem (the Andropogon species closest to it), splitbeard bluestem, little bluestem with dead herbage of Panicum and Paspalum species not far away. This new pine was produced by natural reproduction (seed production, germination, and emergence) and there are frequently too many such seedlings produced so that killing of the vast excess by fire is essential management for efficient, economical production of forest products. On this cut-over forest, however, regeneration was not excessive thus necessitating protection of the next cohort of loblolly pines from fire at this vulnerable stage of their life cycle. Grazing by cattle (the kind of range animal most likely to consume grass and not browse on pines) would reduce the fuel load produced by grasses (and some grasslike plants and forbs)thereby reducing chances of wild fire that would eliminate the barely adequate stocking of loblolly pine. Grazing of such rank, dormant, and, in instance of broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, unpalatable grasses at this stage of full plant maturity and dormancy is not feasible. Cattle will not graze such herbage as show here (at least not at levels of voluntary forage intake that would be profitable to cattlemen). Rather, grazing should have been done back when these herbaceous species were immature and less unpalatable (ie. get on top and stay on top of the potential fuel). Harrison County, Texas. December.

103. Waiting to burn and die- A fine loblolly pine seedling in an ocean of grass herbage. Grass material was mostly from broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, species of extremely low palatability. Getting loblolly pine to enough height to withstand a wild fire on this cut-over pine forest is "ify" and one time when even rangemen (if they done a forester's hardhat for a time) find common cause with that otherwise deplorable bruin, Smokey Bear. The forest range shown here is in the heart of the loblolly pine region and to the west of longleaf pine forest. Thus, wise use of prescribed fire is not as (perhaps not) feasible. Grazing of this regenerating loblolly pine forest by beef cattle would be one of the best--if not the best--practices to maximize the chance of establishing the next crop of wood. Of course, grazing of unpalatable species like broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems has to begin when herbage is young and more acceptable to cattle. Cows and calves would be preferable to steers on low-quality feed such as that seen here because stocker cattle must achieve higher levels of individual performance to be profitable under the almost-always negative price structure (heavier cattle fetch lower prices per cwt.). See there, the ole range professor slipped in one of the Cardinal Principles of Range Management: Proper Kind and Class of Range Animal (in this case, class as to sex of animal). Harrison County, Texas. December.

104. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)- Seedlings and young trees of longleaf pine are seen here in at least four age classes. Longleaf pine is one of the most fire-tolerant trees in North America. Natural and Indian-set fires contributed to persistence of Pinus species in the deciduous forests of eastern North America. This was particularly the case for longleaf pine where fire maintained parklike forest of almost pure longleaf with a grassy understory much like the case for the ponderosa pine forests of western North America. In addition to reduction of a woody understory (and thus likelihood of a crown fire) fire may have helped control southern blister or fusiform rusts such as Cronartium fusiforme= C. quercuumf. ssp. fusiforme. (In addition, longleaf pine is more resistant to fusiform rust than is loblolly or slash pine [Baxter, 1943].) Fire has definitely been proven to be useful in control of brown spot disease (Septoria acicola) when longleaf is in the grass stage (Wright and Bailey, 1982, ps. 369, 415). Fire cost the burnt grass stage longleaf a year’s growth because it consumes the needles (fire destroys the brown-spot spores in the fallen leaves), but in absence of this fire the young longleaf trees would die from brown-spot disease. Winter burns at three year intervals result in doubling the growth of longleaf. Longleaf pine is much more tolerant of fire than are loblolly and slash pine. Natural fires at two to three year intervals maintained longleaf whereas a reduced fire frequency results in loblolly and slash pine becoming the dominant Pinus species. Absence of fire results in succession to the climatic climax mixed pine-deciduous (= hardwood) forest. (Wright and Bailey, 1982, ps. 368-371). In other words, all the southern pine forest types are fire types and this is most true for the longleaf pine type. Stand of young longleaf pine in background. Hardin County Texas, May. FRES N0. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF 70 (Longleaf Pine) of the Southern Yellow Pines.

105. The grass stage of longleaf pine- A longleaf pine seedling in the grass stage (front foreground) and a loblolly pine seedling of comparable age (behind the longleaf) shows conclusively why frequent firing will maintain longleaf pine instead of the more competitive loblolly pine.  A surface fire will burn off the leaves of the longleaf seedling and set it back a year’s growth, but the fire will kill the loblolly seedling. In absence of fire brown-spot would likely kill or retard growth of many young longleafs. The actual mechanism by which grass-stage longleaf survives is simple: the needles grow in a dense pattern around the terminal bud (apical meristem), which is the actively growing tissue of the seedling and whose hormones regulate growth of the tree, and protect it (and thus the seedling’s life) from the heat or consumption by the flames. A most remarkable evolutionary adaptation for a desirable forest tree valuable for both its lumber and naval stores. Hardin County, Texas, May. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF 70.

Organization note: more coverage of loblolly pine forest types are in a seperate chapter, Loblolly Pine.

Swamps and Related Wetland Forests

Dispersed widely, though sometimes extensively, the eastern deciduous forest complex there are various forest cover types on wetlands. Most commonly these forested wetlands are swamps or riparian forests or woodlands. Swamp was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as "a tree- or tall shrub-dominated wetland, characterized by periodic flooding and nearly permanent subsurface water flow through mixtures of mineral sediments and organic materials, essentially without peat accumulation". Much of the wetland forest vegetation furnishes little or no herbage or woody material for forage and browse due to either absence of an understorey or nearly permanent water inundation. While such forests are of limited value (at best) as grazing land per se their vegetation is part of the overall range landscape and does provide water and shade for livestock; serves as sources of water, cover, and space as habitat factors for wildlife, contributes biodiversity to the general forest range ecosystem; and, probably most important of all, serves as essential watershed including the role of flood protection. A short sample of these wetland forest types was provided below.

106. Pine Island Bayou- Portion of bayou along which bald cypress dominated (almost exclusively) the riparian zone. Example of a slough-swell system. Manco soil series. Big Thicket National Preserve, Pine Island Bayou, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

107. Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) backwater swamp-Consociation of bald cypress but local associates are water oak (Quercus nigra) and water elm (Planera aquatica). No understory at all; standing water most of the year. Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). The bald cypress variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Tupelo-Cypress Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Would be Taxodium distichum Association (if such is recognized). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

108. Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)- Leaves and cones of bald cypress. Hardin County, Texas. September.

Presented immediately were a series of eight photographs of bald cypress, bald cypress-water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), and bald cypress-red gum (Persea borbonia) swamps in Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County County, Texas. These various stands were used to represent forest cover types recognized by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). The overall forest vegetation was bald cypress-water tupelo bottomland forest on soils that are more-or-less permanently inundated with water. Such wetlands that are dominated by trees have traditionally been defined and described as swamps.

109. Bald cypress- Consociation of bald cypress, including knees and regeneration of bald cypress. Water tupelo was an associate species in this stand of slightly deeper water. Water oak was also "among the numbered", but the number of species was extremely limited. Slough of Beech Creek, Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May, later vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 101 (Baldcypress). Taxodium distichum Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

110. Big Thicket Cypress-Tupelo Swamp- General view of a bald cypress-water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) swamp deep in the Big Thicket portion of Texas Pineywoods. Structure, architecture, and species composition typical of this forest type.Second-growth forest so that trees lack size of old-growth patriarchs, but species composition was that of the climax forest. There was abundant regeneration of these two climax tree species. Understorey shrub was swamp cyrilla (Cyrilla racemiflora) which was also regenerating. Did not take long to describe this simple wetland forest community. Obviously the only range feed available was browse provided by the swamp cyrilla. Along margins of this tract of swamp an adjoining forest on slightly higher land and less hydric soil another forest community had developed that consisted of swamp chestnut oak or, as also known, cow oak and basket oak (Quercus michauxii), shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, sugar maple, red maple (Acer rubrum), sweet gum, and the small tree or shrub of the tallest lower layer known variously as musclewood, blue beech, or American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). Soil association was a Caneyhead-Kenefick. Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek Unit, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

111. Deep in the swamp; thick in the Big Thicket- In the deep interior of the legendary Big Thicket bald cypress and water tupelo formed a forbidding, mysterious, erie, etc. (adjectives and explectives abound) wetland forest. These two vertical photographs showed representative samples of this forest vegetation. The shrub in center foreground of second slide was swamp cryilla. Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek Unit, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

112. Water tupelo-bald cypress swamp- Healthy natural regeneration but perennially standing water undoubtedly prevents other than rare browsing by white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and(223.11) Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

113. Local stand of bald cypress and redbay (Persea borbonia)- There was some water tupelo present, but redbay was clearly co-dominant with water tupelo a "dim and distant" third among tree species while red maple limped in at fourth place. The major species of shrubs were sqamp cyrilla and swamp or dwarf palmetto. Little Pine Island Bayou, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). Variant of SAF 104 (Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Redbay). Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).

114. Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) swamp- Blackgum dominated a small swamp formed by backwater of the San Jacinto River. Yaupon and swamp or dwarf palmetto formed one to two shrub layers (depending on height of yaupon at different locations) in this wetland forest. Adjacent to this swamp were larger areas of less wet soils on which loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-palmetto forest developed. That forest range vegetation was covered under loblolly pine forests earlier in this chapter. Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa sylvatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

115. Blackgum in the backwater- More detailed view of a black tupelo swamp showing species composition and structure of a fairly restricted cover type in the Pineywoods. In addition to the trunks of blackgum "spotlighted" there were various twisted woody vines of rattan or Alabama supplejack, yaupon holly, and swamp or dwarf palmetto in this wetland forest vegetation. Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa sylvatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

Spanish moss or black moss (Tillandsia usneoides = Dendropogon usneoides) is a common--and conspicuous--component species of the wetland forests (both swamps and riparian forests) as well as surrounding upland forests and savannahs. It was included at this juncture for purposes of interest, variety, and as it seemed "fitting".

116. "Moss"-festooned limb in the Pineywoods- Trees in more southern portions of the eastern deciduous forest complex "sport" numerous species of epiphyte, " a plant that uses another plant, typically a tree, for its physical support, but which does not draw nourishment from it" (Allaby, 1998). Perhaps the most common and widely distributed epiphytic species of forests in southern North America is Spanish moss or, sometimes, black moss or blackmoss, or old-man's beard (Tillandsia usneoides = Dendropogon usneoides). Contrary to the misleading designation "moss" this epiphyte is not only not a moss but it is, in fact, an advanced vascular plant, a monocotyledon in the Bromeliaceae (the pineapple family). Other forests--the Olympic Peninsula rain forest is the classic case--do have true mosses elegantly draped (="festooned" is the popular word) from limbs and branches of trees. Other forest communities have hanging wisply from their branches so-called "moss" that are species of lichen. The California oak woodland is the classic example. Still yet other forest range types (eg. Oregon white oak forest and the Olympic rain forest) have both actual moss and lichen species as distinct components or even layers of their vegetation. Where Spanish moss is a member of various eastern deciduous forest cover types it is a conspicuous, even prominent, botanical component of the vegetation, especially given the species' rather indistinctive, "bland" arrangement of thread-like, gray-colored leaves and stems. In popular imagination Spanish moss figures more picturesquely in erie, deep woods like cypress and tupelo swamps as in the mystic Big Thicket. Actually the densest populations of this bromeliad are in trees growing not in forests but in the open and that have large, spreading crowns and where there is plenty of light for this chlorophyllous epiphye. This set of photographs was taken from ancient post oak and willow oak growing in open fields (but still in the area of the historic Big Thicket of Texas' Pineywoods). Liberty County, Texas. February.

117. Making a habit ot it- Habit (general or outer physical form) of Spanish moss. Strands of thread-like (filiform), grayish stems and leaves of Spanish moss form festoons of considerable size (attaining lengths measured in feet or even yards or meters) as they hang from branches of trees and sway in the slightest breeze. This lichen-resembling species generally lacks roots and instead uses scaly hairs on leaves to absorb water and mineral nutrients from the air (hence, another common name of "airplant"). Spanish moss is regarded as an atmospheric or atmospheric-type eipphyte. It is also a xerophyte (plants living in arid or extremely dry [xeric] habitats) having such xerophytic features as the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism pathway of photosynthesis and multicellular hairs on leaves that reflect excess light and reduce water loss in addition to capturing air-borne nutrients (Diggs et al., 2006, ps. 478, 480). Ephphytes provide one of the textbook examples of commensalism, a symbiotic relationship in which one organism or species benefits (positive effect) from the association (the commensal; in this instance, Spanish moss) while the other "pardner" (the host), trees or other plants functioning as support and growing space, is unaffected (neutral or no effect) by the relationship. The Spanish moss specimen introduced in the first photograph was growing on a willow oak whereas the Spanish moss plant in the second photograph was hosted by an ancient post oak. Liberty County, Texas. February.

118. In the thick of it- A sample of portions from three plants of Spanish moss showing the tangled arrangement of gray, filiform (thread-like; linear, slender and circular in cross-section) stems and leaves within the festoon produced by plants of this epiphytic and xerophytic monocotyledon. Spanish moss is frequently used as nesting material by various species of birds, reptiles, and mammals (from smaller rodents to farrowing sows of free-ranging, feral swine). Indians in both North and South America made miscellaeous uses of this widely distributed bromeliad. Industrial Age man has used Spanish moss for everything from floral decoration to stuffing and packaging material. Anecdotal and empirical evidence has indicated that Spanish moss can be a component of deer diets. Liberty County, Texas. February.

119. Strands of thread-like leaves- Two close-up views of Spanish moss to show the filiform shoots and individual leaves of this xerophytic epiphyte. These adult plants were of large, mature size but at pre-bloom phenology. Liberty County, Texas. February.

120. Two distinct plant communities comprising locally restricted vegetation types: 1) a swamp of water oak with bald cypress as an associate and 2) a maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) marsh designated as a lowlands range site. These two types together constitute a flatwoods pond. FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem) and corresponding K-101 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with with no Kuchler units small enough to pick up the maidencane type. Maidencane would be included with Kuchler-83 (Everglades) in Florida. The maidencane marsh type is SRM 819 (Freshwater Marsh and Ponds). Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community and Maidencane Series (if and when such is recognized) in Southeastern Marshland biotic community, respectively, of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

121. Edge of two wetland range communities- Boundary between the water oak-bald cypress swamp and maidencane swamp introduced in the preceding slide. The swamp portion of this flatwoods pond was FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem) and corresponding K-101 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest) while maidencane marsh was FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with with no Kuchler units small enough for this region so that instead maidencane would be included with Kuchler-83 (Everglades) in Florida. Maidencane rangeland cover type was SRM 819 (Freshwater Marsh and Ponds). Swamp with water oak dominant and bald cypress the associate species comprised a combination or "hybrid" of SAF ted

122. Maidencane in the spring- Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. Maidencane Series (if and when such is recognized) in Southeastern Marshland biotic community, respectively, of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

123. Bay-Gall Bog or Titi in the Texas Big Thicket- This vegetation is the most impenetrable “jungle” or “tangle’ in the Big Thicket. The local mound-and-intermound relief creates a bog ecosystem. The soil series of the mound microrelief (on the mound) has the spodosol soil series Babco. This is currently the only spodosol mapped in Texas. The dominant plants are red bay (Persea borbonia) and sweet bay or swamp bay (Magnolia virginiana) among the hardwood trees and shortleaf and loblolly pine from the conifers. Gall, swamp cyrilla or, by the Indian name, titi (Cyrilla raecmiflora) is the dominant species of the shrub layer along with gallberry (Ilex coriacea; not to be  confused with the preceding gall), bull-briar (Smilax bona-nox), saw-brier (S. glauca), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) dominate the shrub layer. Completing this “tangle” is the herbaceous understory often dominated by rather rank-growing ferns. The largest trunk (in center) is a loblolly pine, the trunk immediately behind and to the right of it is a water oak, the two trees immediately behind and to the right of the water oak are sweet bay magnolias, and the left foreground tree is a red bay. Most of the shrubs in the foreground understory are swamp cyrilla or titi. Hardin County, Texas. May. There is no specific FRES or Kuchler for this local community that grows within the FRES No. 13 (Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine forest Ecosystem). Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

124. Interior of a Texas Big Thicket Bay-Gall Bog- Detail of the shrub layer described in the preceding slide caption. Note the seedling or young tree stage of loblolly pine in the foreground and the adult loblolly pines in background indicating that this is the dominant conifer for this unique local community. Hardin County, Texas. May.

125. The floor or herbaceous layer of a Bay-Gall Bog dominated by ferns. Over 20 species of ferns are native to the Big Thicket and there are another four or five species that may have naturalized here. The ferns are growing on a mound of Babco soil. Hardin County, Texas. May.

126. Profile of Babco soil (the only spodosol mapped in Texas)- Spodosols comprise the  soil order characterized by having  a light gray eluvial horizon over a reddish aluminum- and/or iorn-enriched horizon. They typically occur in humid areas.  The Babco pH ranges from 3.1 to 3.6. Hardin County, Texas. May.

127. Climax Loblolly Pine-Oak Hardwoods Forest- This bottomland Pineywoods is deep inside the Big Thicket and at or, at least, approaching the state of old-growth. It is on the first terrace above Beech Creek and is an edphic climax community of the region with a characteristic open, sometimes bare, understory of grasses in the Panicum, Paspalum, Uniola, and Andropogon species. The three mature trees are (front to rear) water oak, loblolly pine, and cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia) whose big limbs form a spreading crown. The adult tree in the background and appearing immediately to the right of the loblolly pine and the small tree adjacent to and, from this angle,  appearing to sprout from the water oak are swamp chestnut oaks (Q. michauxii). The small tree at far left opposite the branched cherrybark oak is a young willow oak (Q. phellos) whose branches are interwoven with those of another water oak just to the left of the field of view. The trunk immediately to the right of the loblolly pine whose upper portion is adjacent to the water oak is the rotting snag of some tree that lost the struggle for the most limiting resource, light. The background vegetation is a Bald Cypress Swamp in the floodplain of Beech Creek. About 200 yards from this site there is a sandjack or bluejack oak-sandhill bluestem scrub type that formed from aeolian sand carried up out of the Beech Creek bottoms over geologic time. The sandjack or bluejack cover type (a variant of SAF 72) was covered in the following section. Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF  82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

Sandjack= bluejack oak (Quercus incana) Scrub Forest or Woodland

Sandjack or bluejack oak is one of several scrub oaks that constitute a forest cover type (SAF 72). The example of this range cover type presented here had developed on an upland approximately 200 yards from the bottomland Pineywoods presented in the preceding section.

128. Sandjack= bluejack oak (Quercus incana)-sandhill bluestem scrub type- The bluestem is a taxonomic complex of little bluestem, including the taxa often shown as Andropogon divergens or Schizachyrium scoparium var. divergens, and slender bluestem (Andropogon tener= Schizachyrium tenerum). A few post oaks are associates of bluejack oak. Composites and various prickly pears (Opunia spp.) are scattered throughout the bunchgrass sward. An aeolian ("blowsand") ridge community. Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). A variant of K-72 (Oak Savanna). One of the many forms of Southern Scrub Oak, a variant of SAF 72 (Southern Scrub Oak). A Scrub Oak Series of Brown et al (1998), but one was not shown for this region. Sandy upland variant of South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata) Forests

Shortleaf pine, which is generally second only to loblolly pine (longleaf pine have been eliminated by man as a dominant species from much of its former range), occurs over much of upper southcentral North America (mid-South) especially on drier slopes and generally shallower, droughtier soils. Most of the pine and oak-pine forest of ancient mountains like the Ozarks, Ouchitas, and Kiamichis are those in which shortleaf pine is either a dominant or associate tree species. When Okies and Arkies speak of pineries they refer to shortleaf pine. Shortleaf pine is the State Tree of Arkansas.

129. Trunk of a mature shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata)- Red River County, Texas. July.

130. Branch of shortleaf pine- Shortleaf pine has the shortest needles of the major Pinus species in the Southern Pine Region. It was noted above that longer needles accumulate ice from storms more than short needles do. Shortleaf pine is therefore better adapted to more northern and western portions as in Arkansas and Oklahoma where ice storms not uncommonly inflict major damage to pines grown for shade and wood commodities. Red River County, Texas. September.

131. Needless and cones of shortleaf pine- Relative length of leaves on shortleaf pine can be guaged by comparing the ones in this slide with those for longleaf, slash, or even ponderosa pines presented vriously in this publication. Cones of shortleaf pine are the smallest of the four major Pinus species often reaching only one and a half to two inches in length. Cones are frequently borne in a cluster of three at twig tips. Shortleaf pine is a prolific seed-producer beginning at relatively young ages. Fasicles bear two to three needles. Red River County, Texas. September.

132. Shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest- These two views are of a shortleaf pine-dominated forest with the physiogonomy and morphological form characteristic of old-growth (or approaching that stage). The author interpreted this state of forest vegetation development as, most likely, subclimax or perhaps even climax for this site. The crowns and general habit of the large pines had the appearance of very old trees. The understorey was of oaks (primarily the less mesic species like post, blackjack and black oak rather than the more mesic species like northern and southern red oaks). The hickory species could not be identified positively, but it was likely black hickory (Carya texana), a species adapted to drier sites and a local dominant in this area. Sweeetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), one of the pioneer species on disturbed sites, was very common. The oak, hickory, and sweetgum species appeared to have been suppressed by periodic fire. Perhaps this forest developed following a major fire and the fire-adapted shortleaf pine out-grew the oaks and hickories. The suppressed state of sweetgum would not be explained by the latter alternative. There was regeneraation of shortleaf pine. It was an uneven-aged stand or population of P. echinata, but pine reproduction was less than that of the hardwood species. Understorey shrubs included smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), redbud (Cercis canadensis), and poison oak (Toxicodendron radicans). There were two pronounced woody plant layers (two shrub understories). The herbaceous species comprised a single layer (excluding ground-surface species like mosses and lichens). This was the most species-diverse layer of vegetation. It included eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), longleaf wood oats (Uniola longispicata), beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius), big bluestem (A. gerardii), and the composites, compassplant (Silphium integrifolium) and gayfeather (Liatris elegans). Obviously this was an amazingly species-rich and structurally diverse plant community. It had for dominants climax species from both the tallgrass prairie and the oak-hickory-pine forest. Ouachita National Forest, Scott County, Arkansas. July. Ouachita Mountains physiographic province. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Natural Vegetation Classification System of Arkansas for GAP Analysis Project, Natural Terrestrial Cover Unit 1.A.9.b.2 Evergreen Forest With Rounded Crowns Pinus echinata-Quercus marilandica-Quercus stellata. Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ouachita Mountains- Fourche Mountains Ecoregion, 36d (Woods et al., 2004).

133. Shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest near old-growth stage- Another view of the shortleaf pine-dominated forest with hardwood and herbaceous understories. Species were listed and the structure of this forest vegetation was discussed in the preceding caption. It will be emphasized again that the pine population was un-even aged, but recruitment of shortleaf pine was less than that of the oaks and hickories. The vegetation was obviously developing into a oak-hickory-shortleaf pine forest, but one with well-developed shrub and herbaceous layers composed of climax species. The large old-growthlike shortleaf pine on the far right side of this photograph had numerous horizonally spreading limbs and bare spire-form of top which was typical of mature trees growing on savannas. This condition, taken in conjuction with the evidence of a tallgrass understorey (big bluestem, little bluestem, eastern gamagrass plus prairie composites), suggested that this vegetation might have been a shortleaf pine-tallgrass savanna. There were several other older individual pines in this and the preceding slides that had crowns made up of several major limbs which in turn branched diversely, a pattern or arrangement which indicated that these trees had developed in full light and not in a forest. This habit or morphological form indicated that these oldest trees lacked the apical dominance-development shape typical of trees growing up through an established forest. Some of these older trees had limbs below the terminal extension of the bole that were actually larger than this central apex. These trees had well-developed boles and would produce such fine logs as to self-start a Stihl, but the crown form and structure resembled that of wolf trees (trees whose big, spreading crowns occupy more canopy space than that of neighboring trees with larger, more valuable trunks). Vegetation shown in these slides appeared to be a model example of the oak-hickory-shortleaf pine climax type at the subclimax stage which is most productive of high-quality conifer timber and forest range for wildlife and livestock. Ouachita National Forest, Scott County, Arkansas. July. Ouachita Mountains physiographic province. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forests). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine Oak). Natural Vegetation Classification System of Arkansas for GAP Analysis Project, Natural Terrestrial Cover Unit 1A.9.b.2 Evergreen Forest With Rounded Crowns Pinus echinata-Quercus marilandica-Quercus stellata. Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ouachita Mountains- Fourche Mountains Ecoregion, 36d (Woods et al., 2004).

134. Arkansawyer pineywoods- Second-growth shortleaf pine (in effect, a planttion) established as artificial regeneration after the native shortleaf pine--white oak-northern red oak-bitternut hickory forest had been logged. Artificial regeneration (also, artificial reproduction) refers to a stand of young trees established by human seeding or planting of seedlings or cuttings (Helms, 1998). In this forest tract in the Boston Mountains the U.S. Forest Service planted shortleaf pine and managed the forest for that single species with the result presented here: shortleaf pine plantation. The natural pine-oak forest was converted into a one-species forest (at least, more-or-less so; there was clearly a sole dominant tree species). The natural co-dominant oak and hickory component had been supressed by silvicultural practices so that only the natural co-dominant shortleaf pine pine held forest dominance. The hardwoods had reproduced and were growing well in this forest, but at this point (which was approaching harvest age-size for pine) oaks and bitternut hickory were not of size to share in dominance and, thus, in defining this forest community. This tract of forest managed so as to have an unnaturally or atypical high cover and community dominance by one species, the economically most valuable species under current marketconditions, was an example of a forest plantation. The Society of American Foresters specified that a plantation was "a stand composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding" and with the specific notations that 1) plantations could have tree or understorey components from natural reproduction and 2) they could consist of single- or mixed spceies composition with either uniform or diverse structure, age classes, etc. (Helms, 1998). The example of shortleaf pine plantation shown here was a textbook example of those criteria. In short, this was a man-modified forest. It was a forest with native species that had been manipulated to produce the forest crop species of choice while other species were managed for secondary considerations (eg. habitat of white-tail deer, a secondary crop). In this sense, this forest range community was transformed by management from a unit of potential natural vegetation (climax) into a politico-socio-economic unit of vegetation, an Arkansawyer forest. Even though this was a forester's choice of forest, a forest modified by minds and hands of forestry professionals, at least one--a a glaring one at that--of these modifications was due to neglect or, perhaps more precisely, to human action that had "backfired". Exclusion of fire and/or, same thing with emphasis of inaction rather than action, lack of prescribed burning had allowed invasion of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). The high relative canopy cover of sweet gum was typical of forests recovering from disturbances such as fire, blowdown, or, in this instance, timber harvest. Sweet gum is a seral tree species and one with a tolerance rating of Intolerant. It is, however, very effective in growth competitiveness on a wide range of soils and soil moisture conditions (Burns and , 1990). Sweet gum can readily come to dominate forests that were reestablished through artificial regeneration like planting as well as those that are redeveloping through secondary plant succession. This is simply part of the forest sere whether natural or aftificial reproduction. Sweet gum cover and density can be reduced substantially by grazing (even grazers like cattle are remarkably effective), herbicidal treatment, and prescribed burning. Such silvicultural practices may or may not be desirable and included as part of forest management. Shrub species in this tract were listed in the next caption. Ozark National Foraeest, Newton County, Arkansas. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

135. Pine plantation in Boston Mountains- Interior of a shortleaf pine plantation showing composition and structure of a man-modified shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest. Silvicultural practices had produced a forest in which one conifer species dominated the vegetation rather than the natural state in which three or four tree species (and both hardwoods and conifer) are dominants. This situation was explained in the immediately preceding caption. Most of the understorey consisted of woody layers that were primarily different age classes of such climax dominants as white oak, northern red oak, black oak, bitternut or pignut hickory, mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa) along with sweet gum, generally a pioneer tree species, and sassafras (Sassafras albidum), a large shrub or small tree species. Shrubs included flowering dogwood, eastern redbud, Carolina buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana), lowbush huckleberry (Vaccinum vacilians), poison oak, pison ivy, Virginian creeper, and blackberry (this latter probably of several species). Herbaceous species were generally absent (at least from a practical standpoint) which was undoubtedly due to the dense canopy produced by woody species. This photograph included some of the larger trees of native hardwood dominants for comparison to the larger individuals of shortleaf pine. For example, the two northern red oak that appeared at this angle to be growing side-by-side in left foreground. The next succeeding slide showed large diameter of some of the pines. Ozark National Foraeest, Newton County, Arkansas. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

136. Oaks, out; pines, in (or foresters' choice)- Interior of a shortleaf pine-oak forest, a plantation, produced by artificial regeneration. This forest had obviously been managed at (or near) time of planting pines resulting in their noticably greater size than almost all individuals of other tree species. This greater size (both height and diameter) was more than could be accounted for by growth. Sweet gum, the most widespread and abundant hardwood species, could easily have outgrown shortleaf pine on such sites as could stump sprouts from coppicing oaks and root-sprouting hickories. Two of the conspicuous shrubs in foreground of this photograph were sassafras and Virginia creeper. Other shrub and tree species were listed in the preceding caption. Viewers attention was directed to the large diameter of shortleaf pine (about time for logging) and in comparison to that of the much smaller hardwoods. A similar comparison was presented in the preceding slide. Ozark National Foraeest, Newton County, Arkansas. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

Note on location of related forest range type: For purposes of comparison a white oak-northern red oak-bitternut hickory forest, that was more typical of forests in the Boston Mountains of the Ozark Plateau (closer to climax forest composition and structure), was located immediately opposite the shortleaf pine plantation just covered. These two tracts of forest were on the same forest site and both were parts of the Ozark National Forest. They were separated by the two-lane blacktopped state highway, Arkansas 21. That comparison tract was dealt with in the Oak-Hickory Forest (Part 1) chapter of Forest and Woodlands under the White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak Forest section.

137. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata)-oak pineywoods of eastern Oklahoma- Frequent fires have kept the oak-hickory-sweetgum component suppressed thus maintaining a nearly "pure pine type" in this second growth forest. (But note mostly hickory and oak sprouts in understory indicating recent fire suppression and succession toward the climatic climax of the region.) Herb layer is absent but flowering dogwood and redbud form an upper shrub layer while blackberry (Rubus spp.), gooseberry (Ribes spp.), and huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.) comprise a lower shrub layer. Old Military Road, Talimena State Park. LeFlore County, Oklahoma. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Textbook example of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998). Ouachita Mountains-Western Ouachitas Ecoregion, 36e (Woods et al., 2005).

138. Shortleaf pine type with an open parklike understory dominated by big bluestem-Xeric south slope and a recent history of surface fires maintained this form of the white oak-shortleaf pine type as a pine-bluestem cmmunity. Benton County, Arkansas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) is the most accurate description of this type but FRES No.14 and FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) both include the K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) unit. SAF 75 (Shortleaf Pine). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Plateau- Dissected Springfield Plateau-Elk River Hills Ecoregion, 39b (Woods et al. 2004).

139. Virgin shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest— One of the few remnants of old growth forest left in Texas is this shortleaf pine-white oak-chinkapin oak (Q. muhlenbergii)-shellbark hickory (Carya ovata)-pignut hickory (C. cordiformis) community seen here. There are several layers of vegetation including a second tree layer of young climax tree species and species like winged elm (Ulmus alata) and boisd'arc or Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) and a shrub layer of flowering dogwood, Arkansas traveler or pepperwood (Ampelopsisarborea), blackberry, gooseberry, and various wild grape vines. The prominent herb layer(s) include little bluestem, rosette panic grasses (Panicum spp.), slender- or longleaf wood oats, and scattered clumps of the native bamboo, giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Lennox Woods (donated by Kirby Lumber Company to The Nature Conservancy), Red River County, Texas. May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Ecosystem).FRES No.14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). Classic example of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

Following presentation of a virgin shortleaf pine-oak-hickory forest at old-growth state immediately above, a second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood forest in the central portion of Texas Pineywoods was presented in the following section. This forest rangecommunity was on the Davy Crockett National Forest where it was being managed as part of the restocking program of eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in the Pineywoods. Such forest range vegetation was an outstanding example of second-growth forests described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, ps. 7, 60) as the Shortleaf Pine-Oak forest cover type (SRM 76).

140. Physiogonomy and external architecture- Overall views of a second-growth, uplnd shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood stand from surface of forest floor to near top of forest canopy. Dominant woody vines in this particular local stand were Small's, lanceleaf, or coral greenbriar (Smilax smallii) and an unidentified grape (Vitis sp.?). Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), and yaupon. Common grasses were longleaf woodoats, the dominant herbaceous species overall, purpletop (Tridens flavus), and beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps). Forbs were extremely scarce so as to be of no notable relevance except to record presence of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum). Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

141. Internal structure and species composition- Two " photoplots" at progressively closer distance to range vegetation of a second-growth, upland shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood forest. The same shortleaf pine of relatively large size was in foreground of both slides. Dominant shrub overall as based on cover, density, and frequency was American beautyberry. Yaupon was a distant second based on these criteria. There were two shrub layers (upper and lower) in the forest range vegetation presented. The upper or higher shrub layer was very sporadic consisting of "here-and-there" isolated plants of flowering dogwood (left side of first slide), red maple (Acer rubrum) which, though a tree species, was represented as a shrub in this stand (left side of first slide), eastern redbud (right-center foreground of first slide and same plant at far-right in second slide). Common greenbriar (Smilax bona-nox) and an unidentified species of wild grape (Vitis sp?) formed a fairly continuous "botanical connection" from ground level to tree canopy. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

142. Species composition of a second growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood stand with emphasis on shrub layers- In this forest range vegetation as shown in the first photograph hortleaf pines (in background) were joined by sweetgum (foremost tree at far right margin) and white oak (center midground) with an understorey dominated by the low shrub American beautyberry with yaupon as associate shrub species. An irregular or sporadic herbaceous layer consisted of longleaf woodoats (overwhelmingly the dominant herbaceous species) accompanied by splitbeard bluestem (Andropogon ternarius) as the associate herb. Second and closer-in "photoplot" (second slide) presented this forest plant community from roughly the same camera point. Tree trunk in immediate foreground (left-center) was the sweetgum in far right margin of first slide. There was a sassafras seedling to right of this sweetgum. American beautyberry and yaupon (first and second, respectively, major shrubs in lower woody layer) were presented to better advantage than in the first of these two slides. Other ("also-ran") shrub species included common greenbriar; Small's, lanceleaf, or coral greenbriar, smooth sumac, winged sumac (Rhus copallinum), and an unindentified Vitis species. Red maple was present as large seedling and small sapling age classes so as to be part of this lower woody layer. Red maple was present as a small tree along margin of this forest tract (see below). Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

143. Synopsis views of vegetational layers- Interior of a second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest showing the lower woody (shrub) layer. There were more shrub species and consequently greater diversity in understorey structure than in the local forest vegetation presented in the immediately preceding "photoplots". Hardwood species present in forest vegetation presented here included white oak, sweetgum, sassafras, and, especially, red maple. This latter species was present primarily as large seedlings to small saplings except on perimeter of forest where it grew to small tree size (shown bwelow).Here both smooth sumac and winged sumac were present at height intermediate between tall shrubs such as flowering dogwood and eastern redbud and lower shrubs like American beautyberry, the dominant shrub overall. Shrub layers of the forest range vegetation in this local area was presented in the immediately succeeding pair of photographs at shorter focal length to better "sample" species composition and arrangement of this forest stand. Herbaceous species consisted mostly of grass species of which longleaf woodoats was "head-and-shoulders" above all others to rank as the dominant herb. Other important grass species included beaked panicgrass, rosette panicgrasses (Panicum species of the Dichanthelium section), purpletop, and splitbeard bluestem. Forbs were too limited to warrent remarks other than to note presence of an occasional plant of bracken fern, perhaps the most widely distributed plant species on Earth (greatest species range). Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

144. More emphasis on shrubs- Interior of a second-growth, upland shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest presented so as to show greater detail of the shrub layer. This local area was the same "as introduced in " photoplots" represented in the immediately preceding pair of slides. More details of the lower woody and herbaceous layers (s) of this local stand were visible in these "photoquadrants". Dominance was a matter of extremely localized groups because some of the major species grew as clonal colonies. Smooth and winged sumac were most pronounced of these, but Small's or coral greenbriar (immediate center foreground in second of these slides) was also an obvious clonal plant spreading by "rootstocks" (woody rhizomes). Likewise, American beautyberry (the overall dominant shrub) grows in dense populations due perhaps to its typically abundant yields of fruits (immediate center foreground of second slide). Other shrubs represented in these two photographs included poison ivy, an unindentified species of wild grape, and yaupon.Seedlings and small saplings of sweetgum and red maple were plentiful in this stand (they were especially noticable in the first slide). Herbaceous species were primarily grasses and included the dominant, longleaf woodoats, splitbeard bluestem, purpletop, beaked panicgrass, and rosette panicgrasses. the most conspicuous forb was bracken fern, but it was present as incidental, individual plants and did not form colonies or brakes. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

145. On the outskirts- The outermost edge of an upland, second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest featuring a large red maple (immediate center foreground). Most tree trunks were shortleaf pine except for an occasional white oak and sweetgum. Shrubs included American beautyberry, yaupon, and Small's or coral greenbriar. Herbaceous species were not dectible in this photograph taken at such distance as to show most of the nice specimen of red maple. (Details of lower layers of understorey were featured in the next two two-slide sets.) Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

146. Lower layers- Two "photoplots" of herbaceous and lower shrub layers of an upland, second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest in the Texas Pineywoods. The first photograph presented beaked panicgrass and purple as local dominants of the herbaceous stratum (longleaf woodoats was the overall dominant herbaceous species; next set of slides). A species of rosette pancigrass was represented at far left. Yaupon, the overall associate shrub species, accounted for almost all cover in background of this first photograph. An unidentified species of wild grape was also present. The second photograph included seedlings of red maple and sweetgum along with smooth sumac and American beautyberry at less-than-its-usul abundance for the lower woody layer. A plant of bracken fern, the only forb of much abundance, was also included for viewers' interest. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

147. More detail of lower layers- Smaller "photoquadrants" of the lower woody and herbaceous layers of an upland, second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest in the Texas Pineywoods. Longleaf woodoats was the star of this lineup and merited center-stage by nature of it being the dominant herbaceous on this forest range (across much of the Pineywoods Region for that matter). American beautyberry and yaupon with their characteristic leaves also were obvious in both photographs. Also present in the first photograph were beaked panicgrass and a rosette panicgrass as well as smooth sumac, all locally common species in this stand of forest vegetation. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

148. Older pines, more hardwoods, and denser shade- Another stand of upland, second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwoods forest that was adjacent to the stand featured in this section was made up of somewhat larger (resumedly older) shortleaf pines at conspicuously greater density and canopy closure. The downed pine was the victim of a hurricane six weeks prior to time of photograph. The tree closest to this laid-low pine (in front and at left of the trunk) was a sweetgum. Smaller tree with light gray bark in center midground was a Texas or black hickory (Carya texana) readily distinguishable to and handily identified by the photographer (not discernable in photographs) due to presence of 13 leaflets (the only hickory in this area to "sport" so many leaflets). The only shrubs present with any remarkable cover were American beautyberry, dominant shrub of this forest plus flowering dofgwood and eastern redbud, those stewarts of the upper shrub layer across much of the eastern deciduous forest. All three of these shrub species provide mast for eastern wild turkey, the critical animal species for which this forest tract was being managed. Shade was too dense to permit much grass cover. Even the longleaf woodoats, the dominant herbaceous species, had been pretty much excluded from this "sylvan party". Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

149. Sunlite sample of structure- A small, local opening in a shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood second-growth forest afforded a view of forest structure and botanical composition of this foret range vegetation. In addition to the tall shortleaf pines there was a hardwood component of saweetgum, white oak, and black or Texas hickory in the tree layer. In addition there were two shrub layers: 1) taller layer of flowering dogwood and eastern redbud and 2) lower layer dominated by American beautyberry with yaupon as associate species of this stratum. There was an interrupted herbaceous layer dominated by longleaf woodoats. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Pinus echinata Association (if recognized) in a Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) or, alternatively, Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

150. Small's, lanceleaf, or coral greenbriar (Smilax smallii)- Common greenbriar (S. bona-nox) was comparatively more abundant than Small's greenbriar in the second-growth shortleaf pine-mixed hardwood forest featured in this section, but S. smallii was well-represented and afforded an opportunity to introduce viewers to another Smilax species. Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect.

Miscellaneous Forest Types

151. Old growth white oak-shellbark hickory-shortleaf pine community-A bottomland site but on this sandy soil species composition is more typical of upland and mesic sites. Composite shot of the climatic or regional climax of northern portions of Texas Pineywoods. Same species composition as in previous slide. Lennox Woods, The Nature Conservancy, Red River County, Texas. May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

152. Climax bottomland White Oak-Shagbark Hickory-Shortleaf Pine Forest- The more mesic bottomlands of this forest cover type are of the oak-hickory affiliation with very little pine present. This massive old-growth white oak stands as evidence of what even the more western reaches of the Pineywoods can produce. The hat between the flutes of the trunk is a standard 4 inch brim-size so it is about a foot end-to-end. The oak is over 1 yard Diameter Breast Height. Countless thousands of white oaks such as this were logged from Texas’ virgin forests for railroad ties and building timbers to help build a young nation, but many, probably most in many forests were felled for cooperage (mostly to make staves for whiskey barrels). Such is the dual nature of man. The grass understory is made up of scattered, depauperate shoots of the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea), longleaf uniola (Uniola sessiliflora= Chasmanthium sessiliflorum) along with Canada wildrye and various species of Panicum and Paspalum. It is meaningful from a range perspective how much herbaceous and woody understory there is in this old-growth forest, and how much feed there will be if stocking rates are kept very low or super-conservative. The Nature Conservancy Lennox Woods, Red River County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May.

The four slides presented immediately below were taken of an unusually mesic form of climax oak-hickory forest in the Boston Mountains section of the Ozark Plateau. The photographs were in the location specifically identified by Braun (Braun, 1950, ps. 170-172) as being an outlier or island of the Mixed Mesophytic Association (Braun, 1950, p.11) of the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association but found in the Western Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association (Braun, 1950, p. 35). Braun (1950, p. 170-172) concluded that this specific forest vegetation was typical of that in the Cumberland and Allegheny Plateaus. Braun's conclusions were based on species composition, specifically of key species like beech (Table 33, p. 172) and local dominance into the climax by species like sweetgum. Beech was largely extirpated from this locale, but the combination of species mentioned by Braun including Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus), American or white elm (Ulmus americana), and chinquapin oak (Quercus muhlenbergii) along with the typical sassafras, persimmon, and flowering dogwood as shrubs or understorey trees distinguished this as a unique community. Ecologically significant by their absence were post and blackjack oaks, and even black oak (Q. velutina), this latter the dominant species and key species over much of the Ozark Plateau. Commonness of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), classified as Very Intolerant, along with Intolerant species like sweetgum and Kentucky coffeetree were also indicators of a "choice blend" of the oak-hickory "brand". This was further verified by presence of northern red oak (Q. borealis= Q. rubra), southern red oak (Q. falcata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), and bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), one of the more tolerant hickories Deemed by the author of substantial indicator value was commonness of wild hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens), an understorey shrub limited to the most moist habitats such as seeps, springs, and north slopes. Relative abundance of this species and of hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) along with the more typical poison oak and ivy, Virginia creeper, and pawpaw (yet nearly complete absence of herbaceous species) indicated an understorey that also varied from the typical Ozark Mountains oak-hickory forest. The conclusion reached by Braun (1950, p. 172) was :"These isolated mixed mesophytic communities are related to past forest migrations. Their preservation here, in a region whose physiographic history is similar to that of the Cumberland Plateau, is significant." This was an example of the point made by Braun (1950, p. 34) that each of the climax associations which characterize a specific forest region also occur in other forest regions characterized by, and thus named after, another climax forest association. This illustrated the dual nature of a Clementsian association: it was both an abstraction (abstract concept) and an actual climax plant community depending on both 1) the context in which association was applied and 2) the precise spatial and temporal location of the vegetation. The specific forest vegetation shown in this three-slide series illustrated a forest outlier, "an area of forest separated from the main occurrence of its type generally because of some local variation in ecological conditions or past migration of vegetation associated with major climatic changes" (Helms, 1998). Braun (1950, p. 172) specified that this forest outlier was largely a product of "past forest migrations". The following three photographs were taken on the upper terraces of the Mulberry River south of the community of Cass in Franklin County, Arkansas on a moderately steep northeast slope. July. The closest reference for native plant communities in Arkansas is that of neighboring Missouri (two counties north of the vegetation shown in this series) by Nelson (1987) who named and described forest natural communities as to either upland or bottomland forests. These two general groups were then divided on edaphic features such as depth, soil moisture and parent material. From this base the white oak-red oak-hickory forest introduced below would be either Mesic Forest (Nelson, 1987, p. 21) or Mesic Sandstone Forest based on the geologic aspect of the sandstone-capped Boston Mountains and absence of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) found on Dry-Mesic Forest (Nelson, 1987, ps. 37-38. According to the elaborate (and confusing, to this author) Natural Vegetation Classification System of Arkansas for GAP Analysis Project the Natural Terrestrial Cover of this forest was:1.B.3.a.6 Quercus alba-Carya tomentosa-C. ovata listed under Temperate Lowland and Submontane Broad-leaved Cold-Deciduous Forest. Ahh, right. The U.S. Forest Service Forest Type and Management Type Code designation was White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory and 53 for Type Name and Code, respectively. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). Society of American Foresters general designation was SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak) (Eyre, 1980), BUT this was much less accurate than the SAF 1954 designation of White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory. The SAF (Eyre, 1980, p. 42) explained that "as hickories seldom make up more than 10 percent of the stocking, they have been dropped from the type name and black oak, a more common component, has been added". This was a true statement if applied at a landscape or regional scale (ie. across the Ozark Mountains where this type is climax according to the SAF and where black oak is a common dominant), but it most certainly is not a true statement if applied at the stand scale. The stand scale was used in the current publication of photographs and descriptions because stands-- and not landscapes or larger units-- are all that can be photographed with any detail to show vegetation. As shown below, hickories were often not only the obvious dominant but the most tolerant species and those accounting for most regeneration. As such, the SAF number was used below with the specification that hickory was co-dominant. Furthermore, as noted seven paragraphs above, black oak was not common on this Boston Mountains location but instead was generally absent from this more mesic area whose forest vegetation was an island of the Western Mesophytic Forest Association.

153. Mesic white oak-red oak-shagbark hickory forest- A stand of shagbark hickory within the specific mesic form or community indicated. Tolerance of shagbark hickory-- as for all Carya species-- is apparently open to debate. Harlow et al. (1979, p. 251) rated shagbark hickory as "moderately tolerant" while Burns and Honkala (1990, p. 222) regarded it as "intermediate". Both authorities agreed that shagbark hickory produces a deep, rapidly penetrating taproot and that younger trees of the species respout prolificly. Shagbark hickory is a minor component of six forest cover types recognized by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) and probably of others including the more mesic Beech-Sugar Maple Type (Burns and Honkala (1990, p. 221). Local dominance by shagbark hickory throughout this specific oak-hickory forest community in the Boston Mountains was one indication that this forest vegetation was a geologic-determined remnant or relict of the more eastern and mesic Western Mixed Mesophytic Forest Association as discussed immediately above. The trunk with the bleached-color bark in left background was one of many of the red or black oak species (subgenus Erythrobalanus) killed by an outbreak of the red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus). The center and foremost tree was red mulberry (Morus rubra) that, while not a rare species in the Ozarks, in combination with the other species of this community was yet another indicator of the botanical diversity and uniqueness of this specific vegetation. Understorey species were strictly woody and included flowering dogwood, sassafras, persimmon, wild hydrangea, poison ivy, smooth sumac, and Virginia creeper. Black locust as a small tree was present just to the right of the photograph. Interestingly, and ecologically significant, was the fact that the most common tree species that was regenerating in the understorey was shagbark hickory. This indicated that this species was indeed relatively tolerant. (See also the slide below of a white oak stand in this forest-- Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas-- where regeneration beneath large, mature Q. alba was shagbark hickory.) Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

154. Mesic white oak-red oak-shagbark hickory forest- Large and, thus, quite old shagbark hickories (two center, obvious trees) and white oak (two trees at far left) grew alongside an also-old sweetgum (leaves visible on far left, background trees behind and to left of hickories) for an unusual combination of species in the Ozark Plateau (Boston Mountains section). Understorey species were all woody plants with Virginia creeper dominant on the ground and with poison ivy growing up every tree trunk of any size. Shrubs throughout the community of this and other photo-plots in this series included persimmon, pawpaw, sassafras, flowering dogwood, and hop hornbeam. Wild hydrangea was common indicating the mesic nature of the general habitat. There was considerable sexual reproduction by shagbark hickory. Locally the red oak borer had destroyed many trees in the Erythrobalanus subgenus. Oaks in this group included both northern red oak (Quercus rubra= Q. borealis= combinations of both epithets) and southern red oak (Q. falcata). Q. velutina was conspicuous by its absence in this forest community as were post and blackjack oaks, but chinquapin oak was present in small numbers and cover in localized spots. In general, white oak was-- as is typical-- relatively more abundant on less mesic sites like south slopes while the various red/black oak species were more common on the more mesic sites, but there were many examples where all were "fully integrated" and grew side-by-side. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

155. Mesic white oak-red oak-hickory forest in Ozark Plateau- Here is a "sample" of the Mixed Western Mesophytic Forest Association "lost" a "fur piece" from it's Cumberland Plateau region here in the Boston Mountains section of the Ozark Plateau. It is a remarkably species-rich community in a small "plot". The half of a trunk on far left is of shagbark hickory. The four trees to the right of it and in center background were white oak. The largest tree on the right was bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), often regarded as intermediate in tolerance and more tolerant than it's associates (Harlow et al. (9179, p. 263; Burns and Honkala, 1990, p. 194). It will be seen that there were several lower small branches coming directly off the trunk of this large tree (leaves on these and interlacing furrows on bark made identification possible) suggesting relative tolerance in a dense forest. Understorey species included Virginia creeper all over the ground and poison ivy growing to tops of large trees. All the usual understorey shrub/small tree species of this area grew on or close to this photo-spot, including smooth sumac, persimmon, flowering dogwood, and wild hydrangea. Hop hornbeam was least common. None of the early spring forest forbs, like mayapple for example, were visible. Grasses and grasslike plants were absent. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin county, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

156. White oak stand representing the white oak phase of mesic white oak-red oak-hickory forest- Here all the large trees were white oak. The largest tree was approaching size of old-growth and was ripe for harvest. Regeneration was almost exclusively hickory, mostly shagbark and some bitternut. This hickory reproduction dominated the understorey and excluded most of the shrubs and small trees of the lower woody layers. For understorey species see captions for three slides of mesic white oak-red oak-hickory in this same forest (near community of Cass in Franklin County, Arkansas) shown above. Ecological implications of this were unknown, but in this local area the Carya species appeared to be tolerant enough to regenerate in what was obviously a dense forest and crowded understorey. Boston Mountains of Ozark Plateau. Ozark National Forest, Franklin County, Arkansas (near Cass). July. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Froest Ecosysstem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak), but with hickory and not black oak. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Boston Mountains- Upper Boston Mountains Ecoregion, 38a (Woods et al., 2004).

157. Shortleaf pine-oak forest with a canebrake understorey, a pine-oak-giant cane savanna- This was a most unique composite vegetation. It was an oak-pine forest with tree and shrub layers that were diverse in their own rights to which was "added" a canebrake of giant or southern cane, the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea subsp. gigantea). There was no layer of vegetation (at least of macroscopic vascular plants) beneath the canebrake which is the typical condition for canebrakes of this species. Transeau et al. (1940, p. 762) specified that canebrakes were "often invaded" by evergreen oaks. As described in the next paragraph evergreen species in this community were pines and the oak species were not "live oaks". This community was similar, however, to that described in a standard Botany text widely used decades ago (ie. old textbook knowledge). Prior to settlement by European man, giant cane formed vast "brakes" or colonies (as in endless miles of bamboo) along water courses ranging in size from major rivers to creeks throughout southeastern North America. These seemingly infinite canebrakes occurred as far north as the Ohio River and westward to central Texas. Giant cane also grew (and still grows) as isolated plants of one or a few shoots up to small colonies of several hundred square feet as part of the understorey vegetation in oak-hickory and pine-hardwood forests. An exclusive (a homogenous or "pure") stand of uninterrupted canebrake understorey beneath an adult tree canopy was-- in this vegetation hunter's experience-- quite rare. The species composition, structure, and physiogonomy of this forest-woody grass vegetation was likely that of the climax. This was relict vegetation. Even though it was not virgin forest this was interpreted as a climax community tht lacked the component of very old trees of the species present. It was one of the most unique assemblages of native plants encountered by your photographer-author. Shortleaf pine was the dominant tree, but there were a few individuals of loblolly pine (or perhaps of the widespread natural hybrid of these two species). Other trees included white oak, southern red oak, water oak, and sweet gum in about that order. There was a shrub layer composed of small individuals of persimmon and sassafras as well as smooth sumac. These shrubs and/or short trees grew in the canebrake, but were shorter than the taller shoots of the bamboo except at the edge of the canebrake where there was light of greater intensity and frequency. Pensacola bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum var. saurae) and hurrahgrass (P. pubescens= P. muhlenbergii= P. setaceum var. muhlenbergii) also grew on these extreme edges where they got adequate light for survival. The development of spreading, horizonal branches on all trees, including the dominant pines that are usually strongly apically dominant, indicated that these trees had developed on a savanna which was exactly what this community appeared to be: an oak-pine-giant cane savanna. The soil was moist enough to support water oak and the scarce loblolly pine (or a hybrid thereof), but soil water conditions were not periodically ponded let alone swampish. The grassland expression of Arundinaria gigantea canebrake (exclusive, homogenous stands or colonies of giant cane with widely scattered or infrequent trees) was covered in the Miscellaneous portion of the Grasslands section. Miller County, Arkansas. July. West Gulf Coastal Plain portion of the Coastal Plain physiographic province. Pineywoods vegetation, part of the Southern Pine Region. According to U.S. Forest Service Ecological Divisions (Forest Service, Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1999) this was in the Southeastern Mixed Forest Province (231), Mid Coastal Plains, Westen Section (231E), South Central Arkansas Subsection (231Ea). FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak, variant of). No Kuchler or SRM units for canebrake. South Central Plains - Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Woods et al. 2004).

158. Shortleaf pine-mixed oak-giant cane savanna or a shortleaf pine-mixed oak forest with a giant cane understorey- A more interior view of the composite pineywoods vegetation displayed in the preceding slide. Interpretation of this vegetation was subject to many subjective factors including disciplinary background or professional allegiance. It could be viewed as a mixed oak-southern pine forest with an understorey comprised exclusively of a "brake" of giant cane, the one species of native North American bamboo. Alternatively this could be viewed as a combination of diverse pineywoods forest and giant cane or bamboo grassland. Beyond any debate these two "elements" (components) were present. Also beyond debate is the ecological fact that both of these vegetational elements do occur (they formerly occurred on massive scales in the virgin vegetation) in their own forms separate and distinct from each other as potential natural vegetation. It was a different form of canebrake; it was a unique developmental expression of oak-pine forest growing as it were "out of" or in the midst of a canebrake. The characteristic leaves of southern red oak appeared very distinctive along both the left and right borders of this photograph. Smooth sumac and shrublike or scrubby trees of persimmon and sassafras were overwhelmed in a "sea" of native bamboo. Canebrake of Arundinaria gigantea as a grassland form devoid of other than occasional trees was presented and discussed in some detail in the Miscellaneous portion of the Grasslands section herein. Miller County, Arkansas. July. West Gulf Coastal Plain unit of Coastal Plain physiographic province. Gorest Service ecological divisions given in preceding caption. FRES No. 14 (Oak Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest). SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak, variant of). No Kuchler or SRM unit for canebrake. South Central Plains - Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35a (Woods et al. 2004).

159. Bottomland (floodplain) gallery oak-hickory forest- A "finger" of the eastern deciduous forest projects into the climatic or regional climax tallgrass paririe here in the Cherokee Prairie in the Osage Plains division of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. This gallery forest community is classified by the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987) as wet-mesic bottomland forest. It is dominated by pin oak (Quercus palustris) represented here by the largest tree with the light-colored trunk (center). Associated species also visible include: western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), black cherry (Prunus serotina), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), bois d'arc, red mulberry (Morus rubra), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum). Dominant shrub is Missouri gooseberry (Ribes missouriense). Herb layer is absent. Missouri State Prairie Park, Barton County, Missouri. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). One riparian form or part of K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). Variant of SAF 65 (Pin Oak-Sweetgum). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

160. Oak-hickory forest- Landscape scale view in central Ozark Mountains of a white oak-black hickory (Carya texana)-black oak forest that is the mesophytic or climatic climax of this western-most extension of the deciduous forest proper of eastern North America. Shortleaf pine is an associate that is locally dominant. Post oak and scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) are also common upperstory associates. Flowering dogwood, persimmon, sumac (Rhus spp.), summer grape (Vitis aestivalis), and lowbush huckleberry (Vaccinum vacillans) dominate the shrub layer. The herb layer is composed of prairie grasses and forbs of the tallgrass prairie to the west. In addition to typical prairie species, a major legume component is present including tick clovers (Desmodium rotundifolium, D. nudiflorum), wild indigo (Baptisia leucophaea), and native Lespedeza spp. Classified as dry-chert forest by the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). Christian County, Missouri. July, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Classic example of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak). Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- White River Hills Ecoregion, 39c (Chapman et al., 2002).

161. Dormancy afforded a good "look-see"- With leaves on the ground instead of in the canopy an all-in-one view was provided of structure, arrangement, species composition, and lumber crop of a climax black oak-northern red oak forest full of mature trees. Black or Ozark pignut hickory and white or mockernut hickory (Carya texana and C. tometosa, respectively) were associate tree species. There were some post oaks, but this was clearly a forest site for the black oak species. There was also mentionable cover of black cherry, which probably indicated infrequent surface fires in this stand. Grasses were few in understorey, but dominant was broomsedge bluestem. There had been a history of cattle grazing in this stand, but it was generally light (mostly breechy ones looking for better pasture and finding worse than they left). Canopy was too dense for much herbaceous understorey other than for that of early season species like Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). Many of the larger trees in this stand were over-ripe and dying or even dead. There were several snags. However most regeneration was hickory. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

162. Now a summer view- With leaves back up in the canopy a vastly different perspective was afforded of the same climax black oak-northern red oak of mature trees as introduced immediately above. There was ample regeneration of hardwoods, but hickory predominated. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

163. Interior of the climax black oak-northern red oak forest presented in the immediately preceding two sets of two slides each. Abundant reproduction of hickory so that this stand was becoming a hickory phase or variant of the black oak cover type. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

Forest remains: harvest of the black and northern red oaks-black and mockernut hickories forest- The tract of upland black and northern red oaks-black and white or mockernut hickories forest shown immediately above was highgrade-logged and basically clearcut in winter (and on the sly) 15 years after the preceding photographs were taken. The cutover land was re-photographed in July of the second spring-summer growing season post-harvest. Redevelopment of forest vegetation on this improperly logged, degraded tract was a combination of typical old-field plant succession beginning with pioneer or colonizing species including giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), horseweed or mare's tail (Conyza canadensis), hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanginualis), and the naturalized annual, beefsteak plant (Perilla frutescens) along with climax dominants that were regenerating both sexually and asexually. Most asexual reproduction was in black oak (and some northern red oak) by coppicing from mid-size stumps. The other three species besides climax dominants that had appreciable cover were black cherry (Prunus serotina) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). Trees with noticeably less cover were , Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioica), American elm (Ulmus americana), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Surprisingly, the typical pioneer tree species, sycamore had less cover than would be expected judging from recovering vegetation on other severely disturbed sites in the immediate vicinity. Other tree species commonly found as pioneer or early seral plants included sassafras (Sassafras albidum) and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). These two species were also less abundant than in the typical situation observed for disturbance in this vicinity. This cutover land had not been denuded to the extreme old-field state. Most regeneration of dominant climax trees was of the hickory species present as saplings before logging (described and ahown above). Most reproduction of oak (especially black oak) at this point in forest recovery was by stump-sprouting. There were few oak or hickory seedlings at this stage of secondary succession.Most seedlings were sycamore, black cherry, American elm, and sassafras. Some smaller though sexually mature trees that were left standing in the clearcut as well as uncut adult trees on the perimeter of the forest (see below) served as seed trees. Otherwise, re-establishment of oaks and hickories depended on coppicing and/or the soil seed bank. Shrubs were very important in this recovering vegetation. Far and away the most important shrubs were blackberry (probably including several Rubus species) that formed immense thickets that were summarily invaded by this author adequately equipped with buckets at berry picking time. Another important shrub (though less productive of tasty fruit) was smooth sumac (Rhus glabra). Fox grape (Vitis vulpina) and summer grape (V. aestivalis) had spread quickly on the cutover land. Eastern redbud (Celtis canadensis) and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) that had already been growing in this forest remained minus minimal mechanical damage. This remarkably diverse recovery vegetation also included numerous species of forbs, both native and naturalized. The latter included the biennial, flannel mullein (Verbascum thapsus), and introduced legumes, both perennials such as white clover (Trifolium repens) and red clover (T. pretense) and annuals like Korean or Japanese lespedeza (Lespedeza striata). Other forbs included numerous natives like biennial evening primrose (Oenothera biennis); pokeweed (Phytolacca americana); and various composites, especially giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), common ragweed (A. artemisiifolia), Carolina elephant foot (Elephantopus carolinianus), Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), Canada wild lettuce (Lactuca canadensis), and wingstem crown-beard (Verbesina alternifolia). The pioneering composite, horseweed or mare's tail was widespread and locally dominant although generally not in dominating proportions that might have been expected (and, probably, present in the first season following harvest). There was also some immature smartweed or knotweed plants (Polygonum sp.) that could not be identified as to species along with toothed spurge (Euphorbia dentata). Pokeweed was the most widespread and overall most important forb, but giant ragweed was a close second forming dense stands from which almost all plants of other species were excluded. The only common grass was hairy crabgrass. The perennial grasses were represented almost exclusively by broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus). Poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata) already present in the understorey persisted by larger stumps where it was not "overrun by pioneer species. There was also an occasional plant of purpletop (Tridens flavesus) next to shelter (eg. uncut tree).There were also some plants of green and/or yellow foxtail (Setaria viridis, S. glauca, respectively) which could not be distinguished at vegetative stages present at time of photographs. Likewise there were incidental plants of Carex and Cyperus species. White-tailed deer where the only species of large vertebrate that had access to this was black oak-northern red oak forest which had not been grazed/browsed by cattle or hogs for several decades. In the climax oak-hickory forest that approached old-growth state there were very few plants available for grazing and/or browsing in the understorey. These were limited to leaves and buds on regenerating oak and hickory species, flowering dogwood, poison oak/ivy, and incidental plants (trace amounts in absolute and relative cover) of blackberry, poverty oakgrass, and sedge. This tract of black oak-dominated upland Ozark Plateau forest was clearly transitory forest range. Once (after) canopy cover reached almost 100% almost no light that could penetrate throught the dense foliage to reach the ground (soil) surface. After leaves were fully grown in the forest canopy each spring light could only reach to the level delineated by lower leaves on shrubs like flowering dogwood and saplings of oak, hickory, black cherry, etc. In this climax oak-hickory forest with mature ("over-ripe") trees spring forbs like mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) were not present except in natural forest gaps and at forest edges. Organization Note: a black oak-pignut or mockernut climax forest that served as permanent forest range was presented and described in the Use and Abuse of Oak-Hickory Forests section of Oak-Hickory Forests-II. Harvest of this forest was an example that socioeconomic factors often override biological ones, and that many if not most human endeavors (not excluding silvicultural operations) involve human emotions including greed and jealosy. Logging of this oak-hickory forest was a case of timber theft. A thieving son snuck in and stole this standing timber from his aged father who for romatic and aesthetic reasons wanted the forest with its many mature trees left as it was. The conniving son left uncut the trees around the edges of this forest to hide what he was doing inside the tract. The timber-buyer left some of the smaller trees inside the perimeter that he felt were not worth felling (probably to the chagrin of the greedy son who worked up all the slash to sell as fuelwood). Not only was this dysfunctional family relations, but it was also improper forest practices: cut-and-run, sloppy, (and illegal) logging of the worst form, the kind that gives the forest products industry a bad reputation. Thief of "free grass" and "timber for the taking" was standard fare in early history of use and abuse of forest and rangeland resources. The important thing for rangemen and foresters to bear in mind is that these resources are, to large degree, renewable (even with improper harvest methods and other forms of abuse). The following series of slides was of the black and northern red oak-black and/or Texas and mockernut hickories upland forest in the second growing season following highgrade logging that was, in effect, land-clearing.

164. Missing trees, stolen timber- The second-growth black oak-dominated (northern red oak, associate) forest shown and described here was secretly clearcut with a few smaller trees left around the perimeter so that a son could hide the timber theft from his aged father. The crime scene and second-year successional vegetation was presented in two photographs that gave a general view of the cleared forest. The wasted sound logs in the first of these slides added resource waste and abuse to the weed patch effect. In both slides remaining trees (a young northern red oak in the first; black and northern red oaks, Texas or Ozark and mockernut hickories in the second) "looked on" cutover land supporting a pioneer stage of recovering forest vegetation dominated by such colonizing species as the annual composite, giant ragweed, along with common ragweed, hairy crabgrass and such disturbance-loving perennials as pokeweed, black-eyed susan, Baldwin ironweed, wingstem crown-beard , Carolina elephant's foot. Foreign weeds that benefitted from this disturbance included flannel mullein and beefstake plant. Common shrubs included several species of blackberry, summer and fox grape, and smooth sumac. This stage of secondary plant succession on a black oak-dominated Ozark Highlands upland forest was about half-way into the second warm-growning season following clearcutting of a second-growth forest that approached old-growth status. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

165. Into the weeds (and the ticks and chiggers)- Two close-in views of seral vegetation on a forest site that two winters or one an a half warm-growing seasons before had been a climax black oak-northern red oak (dominant and associate species, respectively) upland forest that was harvested by clearcutting (in effect a land-clearing operation). The most abundant herbaceous species were giant and common ragweeds. Other composite forbs included black-eyed susan, common horseweed or mare's tail, an Carolina elephant's foot. Pokeweed and flannel mullein represented native perennial and naturalized Eurasian biennial forbs, respectively. Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata), a perennial herbaceous vine or twining forb, was conspicuous along right margin (about half-way up) in the first slide. The only grass with cover and density worthy of note in the seral range vegetation presented in these two photographs was hairy crabgrass. Shrubs included blackberry, smooth sumac, and summer and fox grape. Tree species present as pre-existing (present before logging), stump sprouts, or seedlings included black oak, northern red oak, post oak, Texas or Ozark hickory, mockernut hickory, black cherry, American elm, red elm, sassafras, and persimmon. Young trees (either too small to make a saw log and/or serving as a cover to conceal the crime sceene from outside the clearcut) included all of the oak and hickory species as well as a few black cherry. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

166. Edge effect, a benefit of forest harvest- Two more general views of a clearcut in a black oak-dominated climax forest in the Springfield Plateau. These two photographs high-lighted the effect of edge, the union of standing trees at perimeter of the now clearcut forest and seral range vegetation developing on the clearcut through secondary plant successtion midway through the second warm-growing season post-harvest. Some of the more abundant and conspicuous herbaceous species on this clearing included native forbs common to disturbed habitats: smartweed, Baldwin ironweed, pokeweed, giant ragweed, common ragweed. Most of these were of little or, at least, very limited forage value. The forb of most forage value was red clover, a naturalized, Eurasian, perennial legume (barely visible in the first photograph as pink clusters). How such abundant cover of this valuable forage plant developed by the second growing following logging remained a mystery. Farmers in this local vicinity have overseeded permanent pastures to red clover. Clearcutting had converted a climax forest with limited understorey (most of that regenerating hardwoods, especially hickory species) into a cutover pasture or range that, though a far cry from standards of high-quality tame pasture, provided valuable forage plants for livestock and wildlife including an introduced, perennial legume; a palatable, annual grass, and forbs of diverse palatability). This was transitory forest range. The second of these slides featured the numerous woody species that invaded the clearing the first growing season following clearcutting. Most conspicuous were two-year-old seedlings of sycamore (center of photograph). There were stump sprouts and seedlings of black oak, Ozark and mockernut hickories and black cherry. Most of the latter were seedlings or pre-established saplings. Prominent forbs in successional range vegetation shown in the second slide included Baldwin ironweed, giant ragweed, and common ragweed. Young vines of summer and fox grape trailed and wound their way around newly established large patches of blackberry out of which grew black cherry, sassafras, and elm (both American and red). In this arrangement of seral vegetation there were edges within edges:. edges where blackberry patches met weed (eg. colonizing composites, pokeweed, flannel mullein) patches within the edge that was the perimeter of the climax black oak-red northern oak forest. This was shown in more detail in the next set of two slides. In Nature any disturbance--no matter how traumatic or disturbing of existing species, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, etc--is a boon to some other species, communities, ecosystems, and so on. Clearcutting the climax, near old-growth black oak-northern red oak forest that occupied this site was an extreme perturbation, a drastic alternation of that forest ecosystem, that had dire consequences on many living things ranging from old trees and their dependent fungi species, squirrels, pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), and humans due to dissolutionous family relations between a father and a theiving son. That action, that extreme ecological disturbance, also created greately improved habitat for white-tailed deer and northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). One of numerous reasons why populations of bobwhite quail have declined throughout much of the Ozark Plateau Region is that their prime habitat of old-fields, recovering cleared forests, and small farm fields had revegetated back (had secondary plant succession progress closer toward) the pre-white man forest. Advanced seral, subclimax, and climax stage oak-hickory forests provide marginal to poor habitat for bobwhite. "Setting back" forest vegetation to pioneer and other early seral stages was (is) of immense benefit to seral species like bobwhite quail and white-tailed deer. When this climax forest (with its high proportion of rotten trees that were "overripe" for quality hardwood lumber) was logged pileated woodpeckers that lived off of insects that thrived on decaying wood as well as cavity nesting mammals including squirrels, 'possums (Didelphis virginiana), and coons (Procyon lotor) came out "loosers", at least in the short run. Critical parts of their habitat were eliminated. Perhaps this was the situation for wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and raptors like great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaciensis), all species that commonly lived in the black oak-northern red oak forest with its old age, over-mature trees. However, turkey and coon soon benefitted from increased production of blackberries, pokeberries, etc. Reduction of canopy cover facilitated predation by raptors although owls are still going to have to find dense tree canopy to escape their arch enemy, the annoying, sleep-depriving crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The 'possum will miss her favorite hollow tree, but see what a crop of persimmons will be produced for her descendants in a few years. The edge where uncut, timber theft-blocking trees meet and merge with the new weed and brush patch provided a new corridor as well as ample cover for new feed sources for various species of animals and new growing environments for plants. Use of natural resources always producers "winners"and "loosers". Wise use to conservation prophets like Gifford Pinchot consisted of finding that "blend" which, in the spirit of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism, "provided the greatest good to the greatest number for the longest period of time". As was shown in later descriptions and discussions of clearcutting this climax black oak-forest, it was quite likely that in the "long run" Pinchot's standard for wise use was fulfilled on this land, in spite of the villainous crime committed by a treasonous son against the rest of his family. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

167. A closer look at edges and species make-up of seral vegetation- Two photographs showing seral forest range vegetation about half-way through its second warm-growing season growing adjacent to adult black and northern red oak trees that were left uncut to hid from view a forest clearcut of a climax black oak-dominated upland forest in the western Ozark Plateau. The plant communites that developed along the uncut forest perimeter occured spatially as "rows" (narrow zones) of woody plants (both tree saplings and shrubs) while there were larger patches of "weedy" colonizing species interior to the "belts" of wody vegetation. In the first photograph a narrow belt of adult black and northern red oaks was in the background while the foreground was an area dominated by giant and common ragweed. The bulk of the recovering forest vegetation (midground of photograph) was a blackberry patch with numerous saplings of black cherry, American and red elms, and sassafras (less persimmon) along with fox and summer grapes. The second photograph also showed a "weed patch" that was almost exclusively giant ragweed with some common ragweed and mare's tail orhorseweed (foreground) contiguous with a zone or "natural row" of blackberry patch with tree saplings and shrubs the major ones of which were smooth sumac, the two grape speceis, black cherry, American elm with some climax hardwoods (more hickories than black or red oaks). Such strips of seral woody vegetation are almost impenetrable to humans as the blackberry picking photographer attested. This is bobwhite habitat par excellence. Even pointers experience some problems getting through such brushy barriers. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

168. Sere colonizers, both pioneer newcomers and climax holdovers- Two close-up "photo-plots" of seral range vegetation on a climax black oak-dominated upland forest site in wesstern Ozark Highlands that had been clearcut two winters previously. Recovering forest vegetation in these photographs was about half-way through the second warm-growing season after logging. The plant community of this pioneer or initial seral stage was a combination of colonizing species (giant ragweed, common ragweed, mare's tail or horseweed, hairy crabgrass, and beefsteak plant) native perennial composite forbs (Baldwin ironweed and Carolina elephant's foot), biennial forbs (flannel mullein and biennial evening primrose), native shrubs (blackberry, smooth sumac, summer and fox grape, Virginia creeper), colonizing trees or generally less tolerant tree species (sycamore, black cherry, sassafras, American and red elm), and seedlings and stump srpouts of climax trees (black and red oaks, Ozark or Texas and mockernut hickories). An amazing array of plant species in small local habitats. Seral range vegetation shown in the first slide consisted of a weed patch dominated by giant ragweed with Canada wild lettuce, biennial evening primerose, and greeen and/or yellow foxtail mixed with woody species ranging from black oak and hickory seedlings and stump sprouts to summer grape that had developed in front of an edge of woody vegetation made up of taller shrubs and young tree saplings. Shrubs included blackberry, smooth sumac, fox and summer grapes while saplings ranged from black oaks and two hickory species to American and red elms, black cherry, and sassafras. This was another example of the edge where different plant communities meet producing the edge effect that is so important for certain species of wildlife. Northern bobwhite quail was a species of great local importance that benefits immensely from this kind of seral range vegetation.. The second slide was of seral forest range vegetation dominated by forbs and seedlings and stump sprouts mostly of black oak and the two hickory species. Conspicuous forbs included giant ragweed, horseweed or mare's tail (many of which had upper parts of shoots grazed off by white-tailed deer), Canada wild lettuce (also grazed by deer though less so than mare's tail), toothed spurge, and biennial evening primrose. Red clover was also present but less conspicuous in spite of its showy inflorescneces than the taller-growing "weedy" colonizers. Tha annual grasses, airy crabgrass and green or yellow foxtail, were the representatives of the Gramineae in this photograph There was considerable cover of young Virginia creeper. The tree trunk in center midground was a black oak. Sprouts surrounding this black oak were mostly Ozark and mockernut hickories. Also in this slide was a hollow butt portion (roughly one ana a half foot diameter) of a black oak log that was later used for fuelwood. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

169. Forgiving oaks- Four examples of stump sprouting or coppicing in black oak on a black oak-northern red oak upland forest in the western Ozark Highlands (Springfield Plateau section) midway through the second growing season for hardwood species following clearcutting. Coppice was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as: "1. the production of new stems from the stump or roots 2. to cut the main stem (particularly of broadleaved species) at the base or to injure the roots to stimulate the production of new shoots for regneration 3. a plant derived by coppicing 4. any shoot arising from an adenvtitious or dormant bud near the base of a woody plant that has been cut back". All four meanings were appropriate for the morphological/physiological phenomenon presented in the four black oak stumps and their second-season suckers. Helms (1998) also provided: "stool- a living stump (capable of) producing sprouts". Coppice shoots or stools (and related forms of vegetative reproduction including water shoots, suckers, and sprouts) are, of course, clones, ramets, modules or modular units of the parent plant, genet, entire vegetative plant, respectively. A simplified explanation is that stump sprouts are natural grafts or naturally formed scions arising from the stock (the stump or root). Forest regeneration by coppicing is a major silvicultural system (or component treatment thereof) for certain hardwood species. Black oak has not generally or typically been viewed as a coppice species or black oak lumber as a coppice crop to the extent as for some other species (eg. black cherry), but on the clearcut described in the above captions a high proportion of the felled black oak did coppice (sprout back from living stumps). In fact, this is the usual regeneration response of black oak, at least of the younger trees. Stump sprouting in black oak was described in Silvics of Trees of the United States (Fowells, 1965, p. 560; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2.p. 747). The latter reported that roughly 95% of black oak regeneration in clearcutting was by sprouts from either stumps or "advance reprodution" (new sprouts from dormant buds near juincture of shoot and root). An interesting inverse relationship exist between stump size and successful stump sprouting. Shoots (sprouts= stools) from black oaks that were larger at harves grow faster than those of smaller cut trees; however, stump sprouting was inversely related to stump size, tree age, and forest site with larger stumps and those of older trees (often "same difference") having reduced sprout perduction. In other words stumps of bigger trees (ie. larger diameter stumps) and, hence, usually older trees are less apt to sprout, but if they do sprout these suckers (stump shoots) grow faster (have more rapid grow rates) than suckers from smaller stumps. This is a common--if not nearly universal--physiological response in hardwood species. Black oak stump-sprouts less readily than norther red oak which, as on this oak-hickory forest, is commonly associated with black oak. Fowels (1965, p. 591) cited research that reported over two-thirds of black oak reproduction in the Missouri Ozarks was "of sprout origin". Nonetheless, coppicing is the best possible means to replace 1) "original" (genetically identical) trees and shrubs and 2) climax woody species. In this regard, sawing logs amounts to the same thing as mowing shoots of perennial forage species for hay. With properly harvest the species composition of the tree component of the clearcut forest is essentially the same as it was before logging. In the instance of the upland Ozark Highlands black oak-dominated forest that served as the example for this lesson there was a cruel irony to the clearcutting operation in which a theiving son stole timber from his trusting father. The criminal act of forest harvest actually benefitted the black oak-northern red oak forest. The felled trees were still of an age and/or size that a high proportion of them coppiced (stump-sprouted) resulting in regeneration of both 1) the climax tree species and 2) reproduction of the same genetic individuals (ie. restoration of the identical harvested trees). Obviously the shoots (trunks= boles) of the mature (actually, over-mature) trees will not be restored because they were hauled of to the sawmill for pallats and framing lumber, but genetically these identical trees will regrow (grow back) so as to be be replaced as they were before forest harvest. There will be the same original root systems and basal trunks, the stumps, but morphologically new trunks. Based on canopy cover the proportion of black and northern red oaks in the recovering (seral) forest was less than in the climax forest, but climax tree species (and the same individual trees) were in the seral forest vegetation from the initial (pioneer) stage of plant succession (forest restoration). With asexual reproduction (coppicing) climax trees were present in the initial plant community following clearcutting rather than entering the forest sere later in the sequence of secondary plant succession as would be necessary if climax tree establishment depended solely of sexual reproduction (production of seedlings). Net result will be (barring other or continued severe forest disturbances) a more rapid return to the terminal stage of plant succession (ie. a shorter time interval to replace the climax black oak-northern red oak forest). Ironically, if the near old-growth black and red oaks (many of them already "overripe" with trunks partly hollow with heart rot) had remained standing for more years most of them would have been too old to coppice. Thus regeneration of the climax oak species almost assuredly would have been much lower and slower. Sexual reproduction (seedlings from acorns) of black and red oak is much less likely (much lower probability of successful tree establishment) than is asexual reproduction by coppicing. Furthermore, recall (from photographs and descriptions of the unlogged, nearly old-growth forest) that most tree reproduction in this climax black oak-dominated forest was of the associates, Ozark hickory (a small tree at maturity) and, secondly, mockernut hickory. In this forest of mature oak trees and in absence of natural disturbances like windthrow (blowdown) and fire the climax oak species were, through a combination of natural death due to old age and lower rates of regeneration, being replaced by replaced by hickory species. Clearcutting this black oak-dominated forest resulted in 1) regeneration of the climax oaks along with that of the associate hickory species, 2) increased plant biodiversity due to a combination of regeneration of climax species and colonization by pioneer ("weedy") species, 3) increased forage and browse production for livestock and deer, 4) improved habitat for bobwhite quail, and 5) caused loss of habitat for plant and animal species dependant on climax forest vegetation.

170. The black oak cover type- Interior view of dry chert upland forest dominated by black oak with post oak, northern red oak, blackjack oak, and black hickory as associates. There are two obvious shrub layers: 1) an upper one dominated by flowering dogwood (State Tree of Missouri; conspicuous here), redbud (State Tree of Oklahoma), and shadbush= eastern serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea) and 2) a lower one dominated by buckbrush= coral berry (Symphoricarposorbiculatus) and blackberry. Wild grape and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) form an aboreal shrub layer while poison ivy (Rhus radicans = Toxicodendron radicans) occurs in both shrub layers ranging from lianas extending to tops of trees to non-climbing thickets.The herb layer is usually limited to early spring species that complete their annual cycle before greening of the forest canopy. Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) is the conspicuous dominant herb. Head of hollow on a chert upland. April, early vernal aspect. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005). IMPORTANT: As a general rule, browsing animals find deciduous shrubs and trees considerably more palatable than coniferous ones with the general response being that deciduous forests are much more prone to suffer damage, especially retarded regeneration, by overbrowsing than are coniferous forests. Understandably, foresters are reluctant to recommend (typically adamantly oppose) stocking livestock on hardwood forest types.Swine with their incessant rooting and feeding on mast are the livestock species that cause the most damage to these remarkably fragile range types.Proper livestock stocking rates on hardwood range are those described generically as “conservative”. These are forests that are usually most valuable for watershed and whose main crop or commodity is wood.HARDWOOD FORESTS ARE NOT "STOMP LOTS"!

171. Dormant but healthy- An Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak that had received no livestock grazing for decades supported various age classes of trees. Other major trees included northern red oak, black hickory, black walnut, Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and black cherry (Prunus serotina). Typical understorey shrubs included redbud, flowering dogwood, and woody vines such as various species of greenbriar and grape along with Virginia creeper and poison ivy (oak). This forest stand was so dense and had a nearly closed canopy so as to exclude development of an herbaceous understorey other than for early growing season species like mayapple. In most precise terms, the potential natural vegetation of this tree-dominated plant community was more woodland than forest per se. Climax vegetation would most likely consist of a more open or incomplete canopy cover (ie. tree crowns would not be interlocking). Nelson (1987, 2005) made a rational, well-written distinction between forest and woodland vegetation of the Ozark Plateau. The stand of black and post oak-dominated vegetation described here and immediately below were Dry-Mesic Chert Woodland (Nelson, 2005, ps. 190-193). Otawa County, Oklahoma. January. An upland forest of mixed oak and hickory species, but given overall dominance of this and adjoining forest stands the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) cover type that most closely fit this forest vegetation was Black Oak (SRM 110). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

172. Also dormant but not healthy- An Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak that had been grazed by beef cattle for decades. This stand (if that term could be used loosely for comparitive purposes) was about 150 yards down a county road from the stand shown in the preceding slide. In addition to mature black oak, post oak, and, fewer, northern red oak (some of each species were on the ridge crest in background) there was a pole-size black walnut. There were also numerous and very conspicuous seedlings to small saplings (say, two to eight years in age) of eastern red cedar, an eastern juniper (Juniperus virginiana). There was zero regeneration of hardwoods of any species including the strongly smelling, usually unpalatable black walnut. This stand was a degraded Dry-Mesic Chert Woodland (Nelson, 2005, ps. 190-193) with potential natural vegetation for this forest site being an open or sporadic (vs. closed or complete) canopy of an actual forest having interlocking crowns. Foresters and rangemen would still management this as a stand of hardwood trees capable of producing high-quality oak, hickory, black walnut lumber as as having a grazable understorey for light stocking of livestock and habitat for wildlife including white-tailed deer, bobwhite quail, and squirrels. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.

173. Older hardwoods and younger cedars (or Where are the young hardwoods?)- The same "stand" of Ozark Plateau upland forest (south slope) co-dominated by black oak and post oak as presented in the immdeiately preceding slide. Large, two-trunked tree in center foreground was northern red oak. Extreme overrgrazing/overbrowsing for unknown decades (probably half a century or longer) had prevented regeneration of hardwood species. This management of a hardwood stand as a "stomp lot" had taken place over such a long time that even pole-size trees were absent from these "woods". Overgrazing/overbrowsing by cattle had not only been responsible for failure of hardwood reproduction, but this poor forestry (and animal husbandry) practice had also prevented periodic surface fires in what would otherwise have been an oak-hickory-walnut forest. Removal of essentially all herbage and prevention of production of fine woody material pre-empted light forest burning (ie. there was no fuel). Meanwhile birds that had eaten the fleshy seeds of eastern red cedar on rocky north slopes and bluffs above a nearby creek perched in and defeacted cedar seeds from the mature oak and black walnut trees. This avian behavior resulted in establishment of young cedar seedlings and saplings in the understory. In absence of fuel for light surface fires eastern red cedar was becoming established as the new forest cover type (SAF 46, Eastern Redcedar). Cattle will not eat eastern red cedar even inside corrals (or "cowpens" as such enclosures are called by many Ozark hillfolk). Barring disease these eastern junipers are safe-- at least until they become so large and close together (adequate canopy cover) that an accidental fire can spread almost instaneously through their crowns (ie. a crown fire, which is what any self-respecting rangeman would be hoping for in this degraded forest range site). This is horrid mismanagement of resources resulted in anthropogenic vegetation that was textbook case of grazing disclimax. In fact, this stand fit perfectly the description of the Eastern Redcedar forest cover type (SAF 46) by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p.50-51). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.

174. "In the Good Ole Summertime" but still "sick"- Sleek cattle and green leaves do not change the fact that this should-be or one-time forest is a degraded plant community (again, notheing but a "stomp lot"). What should be an oak-hickory forest with miscellaneous hardwoods such as black walnut, black cherry, and Kentucky coffeetree become a degraded pasture of mostly Eurasian annual grasses and a few mature trees of climax species from the previous forest stand. Cattle through overgrazing and overbrowsing prevented regeneration of the hardwood trees and also precluded light surface fires that would have killed these non-sprouting junipers and benefitted former climax understorey grasses. Yes, it is true that a climax or late seral stage oak-hickory forest like the stand that was about 150 yards down the road from this "mess" (and that was used as the control plot to present this lesson) would have little grazable/browsable understorey. A comparison of that late successional stage of forest vegetation with the "cow pasture" shown here would suggest to the neophyte that there is more "cow feed" on this degraded former forest. That is not true, not the case at all. The near-climax forest of the control plot is ready for logging. Following harvest of oak, hickory, and walnut logs, native grasses (big bluestem, Indiangrass, and purpletop are the main ones) and numerous shrubs (including blackberry, sumac, buckbrush, and wild plum) as well as regenerated hardwoods (mostly seedlings with some stump sprouts) will soon become re-established and provide range forage and browse for livestock and wildlife (notably white-tailed deer and bobwhite quail). Most importanlty from a forest perspective is the fact that the wood crop (hardwood logs are the agricultural commodity) is a source of revenue along with cattle (feeder calves and cull cows) and wildlife (either as recreational products or a sources of income from egress fees). Over the longterm, a properly managed oak-hickory forest will generate more revenue and produce more resources and commodities than this degraded barnyard with shade trees. Even the latter will eventually die to be replaced by juniper which will be a fire hazard by that time. Of course, agricultural producers are the world's greatest and most sustained optimists. In that spirit one can always hope that the eastern red cedar will escape crown fires and live long enough to grow into lumber that will fetch a fair price and that can be made into fragrant cedar chests to sell to tourists in flea markets. If this owner wanted nothing but pasture for these cows and calves the proper farming practice would be to plant this land to introduced (agronomic) pasture grasses like bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylodon) or tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), both of which are well-adapted to these shallow rocky Ozark hills. The owner could then properly manage this tame pasture for economical production of beef cattle. Instead and as it was this landowner had nothing but "bragging rights" to running some cows and a lot less income than if he had wisely managed his forest, range, and livestock resources. This joker had not done justice to the revered title of "hillbilly" (just plain "hick" about covered it). Ottawa County, Oklahoma.

175. Some respectible-size hardwoods on a rock pile- A climax oak-hickory forest with black oak (two foremost trees on the left; two left foreground trees) the most common tree species along with black hickory and bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) and even one blackjack oak (rightmost larger tree). The large tree with the high scar (tree behind foremost tree on left) was a bitternut hickory with a DBH of 24 inches. Not much herbaceous understorey but big bluestem and broomsedge were main species. Flowering dogwood (left margin; just coming into bloom) was major species of the upper shrub layer. A second or lower shrub layer consisted of buckbrush, blackberry, and Virginia creeper, this latter of which covered much of the ground surface and also reached up into tree crowns so as to be in both shrub layers. Grape (right foreground) also extended in both shrub layers. Very marginal land (Land Capability Unit #8). April, early vernal aspect. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). Black oak and red oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 110 (Black Oak). Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

White Oak (Quercus alba) Forests

White oak is one of the most widely distributed Quercus species in North America. It is also a widespread dominant or associate species being a major and defining member of several of the climax forest regions of Braun (1950, ps., 35-38): Western Mesophytic, Oak-Hickory, Oak-Chestnut, and Oak-Pine. Forest cover types in which white oak was co-dominant, especially with a conifer (eg. white oak-shortleaf pine, white oak-loblolly pine) or was only an associate species, were treated separately from this short section which was devoted only to cover types White Oak (SAF 53) and White Oak-Black Oak--Northern Red Oak (SAF 52).

176. The white oak cover type- As stated by the Society of American Foresters (1980), the white oak forest cover type is "pure". In classic Clementsian terms this primarily a consociation (certainly in the photo-plot presented here). Seen here is a stand of vigerous young white oaks on a moist north slope in the Missouri Ozarks. The dominant herb is the widespread composite, black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta). Also visible is the unique natural spiderwort hybrid (Tradescantiaozarkana X T. ernestiana). The main shrub growing amidst the oaks is flowering dogwood. Roaring River State Park, Barry County, Missouri. May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). White Oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 53 (White Oak). Quercus alba Association (if recognized as such) in Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson 2005, ps. 125-130). Ozark Highlands- White River Hills Ecoregion, 39c (Chapman et al., 2002).

177. Members of an upland white oak-dominated forest- A species-rich upland forest community had developed on this upland Ozark Highlands location. At some local sites white oak formed a consociation. At other local sites white oak was joined by shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum) as associates. Other tree species included black oak, northern red oak, post oak (of course as nearly always present), western hackberry, sycamore, and honey locust (in that approximate order). Flowering dogwood comprised most of a lower woody layer other regenerating young trees of above listed species. An herbaceous layer at this particular location included shooting star or American cowslip (Dodecatheon meadia) and Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides) along with the hybrid spiderwort specified in the preceding caption. Roaring River State Park, Barry County, Missouri. May, vernal aspect.FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). White Oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 53 (White Oak). Quercus alba Association (if recognized as such) in Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson 2005, ps. 125-130). Ozark Highlands- White River Hills Ecoregion, 39c (Chapman et al., 2002).

178. Deep in "them thar hills"- White oak-dominated upland forest in Ozark Mountains.Associates of white oak were (locally or at local site scale) shagbark hickory , sugar maple, black oak, and the ever-present post oak. Flowering dogwood was present throughout as the principal shrub species though it was not in bloom during this mid-spring season. Redbud was also present, but it was much less common than flowering dogwood. In these two "photo-plots" herbaceous were sparse and limited mostly to the hybrid spiderwort noted above. Roaring River State Park, Barry County, Missouri. May, vernal aspect.FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). White Oak form of K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 53 (White Oak). Quercus alba Association (if recognized as such) in Oak-Hickory Series 122.11, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al. (1998). Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson 2005, ps. 125-130). Ozark Highlands- White River Hills Ecoregion, 39c (Chapman et al., 2002).

179. Scond-growth white oak et al. forest with amazing species diverstiy- At head of a hollow deep in the Ozark Plateau white oak dominated a north slope of a Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 125-130). Associate tree species were of the red or black oak group (Erythrobalanus subgenus): black oak and northern red oak. Hickory was common as was (though less so) black walnut. Sugar maple was also present in more mesic microsites. Dominant large woody understory species (large or tall shrub layer) was flowering dogwood. Understorey shrubs of a second or lower layer included wild hydrangia, blackberry, poison oak, grape, Virginia creeper, and lowbush huckleberry (Vaccinium vacillans) . The most abundant grass was hairy, downy, or silky wildrye (Elymus villosus) while the dominant forb was pokeweed (Phytolaca americana). Several species of tickclover (Desmodium spp.) were also widely distributed. Flag Springs State Park, McDonald County, Missouri. June, late vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). Most plausible Society of American Foreters (Eyre, 1980) cover type was SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak) and this was predominant cover type of this locality: white oak was not as much as obvious dominant and defining species as was case for SAF 53 (White Oak) which this closely resembled. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson 2005, ps. 125-130). Ozark Highlands- Elk River Hills Ecoregion, 39b (Chapman et al., 2002).

180. White oak-black oak-noethern red oak forest- White oak clearly dominated this north slope of a western Ozark Plateau forest, but it was not cover or density domiance to the degree that white oak dominated the north slope shown in the preceding set of slides (Roaring River State Park, White River Hills Ecoregion). Development and species diversity of two prominent woody layers below canopy layer was greater and different from that of a more overwhelming dominance by white oak as described for the immediately preceding Ozark Plateau forest.. This north slope and forest hollow was substantially more mesic and had less light exposure than the preceding forest. Flowering dogwood was the dominant of the taller shrub layer. A lower and more diverse shrub layer included wild hydrangia, blackberry, poison oak, grape, Virginia creeper, and lowbush huckleberry. The herbaceous layer(s) was not as diverse as the white oak-dominated north slope forest described above, but the grass component (mostly downy, silky, or hairy wildrye) was much more productive and of far greater foliar cover on this mixed oak Ozark forest. Most common forb was pokeweed (which is more commonly a forest forb on locally disturbed areas). Flag Springs State Park, McDonald County, Missouri. June, late vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). Most plausible Society of American Foreters (Eyre, 1980) cover type was SAF 52 (White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak) and this was predominant cover type of this locality: white oak was not as much as obvious dominant and defining species as was case for SAF 53 (White Oak) which this closely resembled. Oak-Hickory Series of Brown et al. (1998). Dry-Mesic Chert Forest (Nelson 2005, ps. 125-130). Ozark Highlands- Elk River Hills Ecoregion, 39b (Chapman et al., 2002).

181. White oak-shortleaf pine forest- White oak is frequently the dominant oak in the shortleaf pine-oak type (SAF 76), especially on more mesic forest sites. By definition and description dominated more by pine than by oak (even with co-cominance). The forest shown here, and included under the White Oak section of this chaper, was clearly dominated by white oak with shortleaf pine ranging from being lesser of two co-cominants to the main associate species. In local stands of this forest in which white oak and shortleaf pine were co-dominant post oak was associate tree species. A list of shrub species in the forest community presented here was a long one. Flowering dogwood, sassafras, persimmon, grape, smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), shining or winged sumac (R. copallina), blackberry, redbud, and poison oak were good "for starters". Indiangrass, little bluestem, and Canada wildrye were dominant grasses in that order. The Eurasian orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) was also present. Hobbs Wildlife Management Area, Benton County, Arkansas.October, autumnal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). White oak-dominated variant of SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series 122.14, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al., 1998, p. 37). Ozark Highlands- Dissected Springfield Plateau-Elk River Hills 39b (Woods et al., 2004).

182. Views of an Ozark "pinnery"- Hillfolk in the Ozarks traditionally refered to hardwood (most commonly oak-hickory) forest with pines (usually scattered individuals rather in groups) as a "pinnery". "Setting the woods afire" (often for the expoused purpose of "killing them *#&%** ticks" by white hillbillies was a lesson well-learned from the Indians and such flaming rituals of spring undoubted gave some competitive advantge to the more fire-adapted conifers. The sundown autumn scenes shown here from the western Ozark Highlands accurately represented a typical "pinnery". There were enough adult shortleaf pines and they were reproducing adequately to add a "pine flavoring" to the white oak-dominated form or phase of the Ozark oak-hickory forest. As the sun sets there's just time to do the chores, eat a leisurely supper, and then load up the hounds to spend an evening listening to the mountain music as Black and Tans, Blueticks, and Redbones inform us of their progress in pursuit of coon or fox. Bring plenty of crackers and sardines, boys. It'll be a fine fall night in the pinnery. Hobbs Wildlife Management Area, Benton County, Arkansas.October, autumnal aspect. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). White oak-dominated variant of SAF 76 (Shortleaf Pine-Oak). Oak-Pine Series 122.14, Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 of Brown et al., 1998, p. 37). Ozark Highlands- Dissected Springfield Plateau-Elk River Hills 39b (Woods et al., 2004).

183. A well-formed Ozarker- Mature white oaks growing in the open develop magnificant crowns formed by large limbs that branch and rebranch repeatedly. Such white oaks are priceless shade trees rather than forest or timber trees that form large to massive boles which are free of limbs for distances sometimes in excess of 50 feet and that are prized for their yields of high- grade white oak lumber. The grand specimen paraded here grew on a fertile upland site in the graveyard of a rural church where it stood in stark testimony of the sorts of trees that can be produced in the western Ozark Plateau. McDonald County, Missouri. June.

Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) Forest

Bur oak as a forest cover type (SAF 42; Eyre, 1980, ps. 39-40, 236) is the most northward and westward of the eastern and central continental tree oaks. Bur oak comprises the only oak forest cover type in more northern portions of the Central Lowlands and Great Plains physiographic provinces. Bur oak is extremely tolerant of drought and fire and forms forests, groves and savannahs within (and within) the central grasslands of North America from the eastern edge of the Prairie Peninsula (Transeau, 1935) through to the Black Hills (Eyre, 1980, p. 39). Bur oak is to this vast region what post oak and blackjack oak are in the south (eg. Cross Timbers). These two forest range types meet near northern reaaches of the Flint Hills Region. Presented in this section was an example of the bur oak forest cover type (SAF 42) found on a north slope and outward to a ridge top in the Nebraska Sandhills. This was about as dry (least mesic) an environment as bur oak is adapted to, at least to the extent of forming forest communities. This example was a forest and not a woodland or savanna although at its outer edges it did form small groves with tree density and understorey more suggestive, or even typical, of woodland. This contiguous bur oak-dominated community (both forest and grove phases, or two communities if so interpreted) was the climax (ptential natural) range vegetation on this sere except where frequent, close, mechanical mowing had converted the native herbaceous understorey to a manmade one made up of Eurasian perennial grass species adapted to such intensity and frequency of defoliation. Examples of both native and naturalized herbaceous layers were presented following a brief section that introduced the foliage and fruit features of bur oak. This relict stand of bur oak forest had developed on what was at this time the Valentine, Nebraska city park (and almost any city park says it all). This forest range vegetation occupied both upland, including and especially a mesic north-slope, and bottomland site. Vegetation on all but the north-slope was highly modified by yard-mowing, manicure-it urban man (even in this over-whelmingly rural region). The natural herbaceous understorey of the upland phase was Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis) except on north-slope upland forest range where the dominant herb was—as on the bottomland phase—long-beak(ed) or Sprengel’s sedge (Carex sprengelii). It was likely that there was also some bristleleaf or ebony sedge (C. eburnea) was growing in association with long-beak sedge, but C. eburnea could not be positively identified given absence of inflorescences. Under frequent, close mowing Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) dominated the lowland understorey. With less frequent mowing smooth brome (Bromus  inermis) dominated both bottomland and upland phases. Both of these introduced Eurasian grasses have naturalized widely and under a farmer (vs. forester or rangeman) frame of mind, and management consistent therewith, the native grasses and sedges were crowded out by aggressive, highly competitive agronomic forages. The timeless story since Cain and Abel. The farmer (cornhusker in the Cornhusker State) again won out over the pastoralist.

184. Big tree on the prairie- Beautiful and massive specimen of bur oak that made its home in the floodplain of the Bosque River in the Western Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. Bur oak is obviously a minor member--especially when compared to the dominant post and blackjack oaks--of the scattered forest and woodland communities in southern portions of the tallgrass prairie region. In more northernly parts of this vegetational realm bur oaks replace blackjack and even post oak as the dominant oak. In these northern parts of the Prairie Peninsula and tallgrass-true prairie region bur oak would be second--if that--only to eastern cottonwood as a dominant tree both on grassland and isolated forest communities such as gallary forests. Bur oak is the most widely distributed of all the oak species that have the role of hardwood dominant across the North American central prairies (McGregor et al., 1977, ps. 39-41). Post oak and blackjack oak barely extend northward to Iowa whereas bur oak extends to Ontario. Bur oak forms forests, woodlands, and groves (distinguished by tree density, extent of canopy cover, and size of stand resulting in varying degrees of understorey development) in more northern areas of North America as in the Nebraska Sandhills, an example of which was used for photographs and corresponding descriptions and explanations in this section. Hamilton County, Texas. July.

185. Bur(r) or mossy cup oak (Quercus macrocarpa)- Young leaves and catkins of the dominant oak of the northern tallgrass, true, and mixed prairies northward from central Kansas. Bur oak can be interpreted as the northern ecological equivalent of post and blackjack oaks as   the aboreal dominant of the grassland-deciduous forest ecotone (Vankat, 1979, p. 221).  This species produces the largest acorns of any oak in North America and it is the oak of the famous oak groves and savannas of the northern grasslands (Peattie, 1938). Seedlings rapidly send their tap roots deep into the fertile prairie soils and become quickly established after germination (Weaver, 1968, ps. 135-139). This genetic adaptation to drought combined with the species’ thick fire resistant bark (Allen, 1967, p. 15) make it admirably suited to drought- and fire-prone prairies. It’s range extends far south of it’s region of dominance into central Texas where it sometimes dominates bottomland savannas. Hamilton County, Texas, April.

186. Leaves and fruit of buroak- Burr oak (either one or two "rs" are used) is regarded as having the largest acorn of any Quercus species in North America. Like other white oak species buroak bears fruit every year (versus a two-year cycle) in the red or black oaks. The combination of large acorns and production each year makes this species one of the most valuable producers of mast in the eastern deciduous forest (ie. the eastern part of North America). Burroak is also known as mossy-cup oak, both common names in reference to the conspicuous tapered tips of the scales of the cup which present a fringe-like appearance. The geographic range of. Q. macrocarpa extends from eastern Canada (New Brunswick and Quebec) to Texas. Hamilton County, Texas. September.

187. Unusual leaf arrangement in bur oak- Bur oak has a unique arrangement of leaves along its leaders. Leaves grow in dense clusters or whorls at intervals along young branches (leaders) with one of these clusters (complete with the current year's acorns) on each of several internodes extending back toward the trunk until older internodes cease to produce such clusters. Two such leaf and acorn clusters on one leader were shown in this photograph. These were obviously the two youngest internodes which showed the last two year's growth of this shoot (one internode being produced each growing season). Erath County, Texas. Late September; approaching fruit-ripe stage of phenology.

188. Clusters of leaves (and acorns) in bur oak- Two clusters or whorls of leaves and acorns in bur oak. The first photograph presented a whorl from a lengthwise view whereas the second photograph presented more of an oblique and semiend-on view of the second whorl. Bur oak concentrates its leaves in large clusters infrequently along its branches (one cluster per internode) whereas most oak species produce individual leaves and some secondary (usually short) shoots off of young branches (= leaders or shoots) at more frequent intervals along their internodes. Erath County, Texas. Late September; approaching fruit-ripe stage of phenology.

189. Clustered at the end- End-on views of two different clusters or whorls (at progressively closer distance) of leaves in bur oak. This is a unique and eye-catching arrange of foliage and fruit in a Quercus species especially well-adapted to drought and fire. Bur oaks grow at variuos densities ranging from isolated individual trees to small groves to dense forests (see rest of section immediately below). Function of this unique arrangement (pattern) of leaves in bur oak was unknown to this author. Erath County, Texas. Late September; approaching fruit-ripe stage of phenology.

Technical Note: The following sequence of photographs of the Bur Oak forest cover type (SAF 42) was taken in early summer (late-June). Two aspects were presented and described: 1) north-slope and 2) hilltop. These represented two distinct aspect-based bur oak forest communities even though both were: 1) dominated by bur oak, 2) the same cover (dominance) type, and 3) upland forest. Both aspect-determined bur oak communities were photographed at the same time (about 0730 to 100 hours Central Standard Time). This time of day was most advantageous for pphotographing the north-slope forest which, having a general northeast orientation (hillside alignment), received most light in the understorey (maximum land surface area exposed to full-sun lighting; greatest understorey coverage of greatest light intensity) in early to mid-morning. Obviously time of daylight hours (excepting very early morning or late evening) was largely irrelevant for photographing vegetation of hilltop forest. Relatively high density of adult bur oaks on the north-slope forest coupled with dense individual crowns of this large-leafed species resulted in one of the darkest understorey habitats ever seen by this photographer. Most of the understorey area (square footage, yardage, meterage, etc.) of the north-slope forest range received somewhere between half to three-fourths of an hour of direct light daily. During the remainder of daylight time plants--especially herbaceous species--were in relatively dense shade and obtained only indirect light. Herbaceous species in bur oak forest have to be some of the best adapted and most extreme examples of sciophytes (skiophyes) or sciaphlic (skiaphilic) plants, "shade-loving" or plants that have evolved to shade (shady habitats), in the eastern deciduous forest. Viewers should realize that the shady (generally dark; poorly lite) images presented below, while of relatively poor viewing quality (compared to range types in other biomes), "caught" exactly normal light conditions as they existed, and at their brightest (time of day in which most light penetrated forest crown canopy to reach ground level). No artificial lighting was used. In other words, intensity and quality of light seen in photographs were those that the viewer himself would have experienced, the images that would have traveled through his cones, rods, and optic nerve, had he moved through this forest environment.One can but marvel at the adaptation of the herbaceous plants in bur oak forest range.

190. Sylvan scene in Nebraska Sandhills (Are you kiddin"?)- Send this as a postcard from the Nebraska Sandhills and those who deal in sterotypes will asert, "You're kidding me". Nope, the real thing.. Bur oak Sandhill forest on a north slope in early summer. Most of the trees in these two "dendrographic" photographs were bur oak (including the largest tree and the pole-size sampling in left front of the "big 'un"), but white or American elm (Ulmus americana) and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) were associates that were present (as in background of these two slides). (Incidentially the commerative specific epitthet pennsylvanica means literally "Penn's woods" [ in honor of the Quaker founder, William Penn] ; " sylva from the Latin and Greek roots is in reference to "wood" or "forest"). This was an old-growth stand of bur oak with the climax herbaceous species still dominating the understorey. This was clearly virgin range vegetation. The graceful herbaceous understorey in these two "photo-plots" was almost exclusively made up of long-beak or Sprengel's sedge (Carex sprengelii). Canada wildrye (Elymus canadensis) was the associate herbaceous species overall though very little of this grass was present in forest range vegetation presented here. Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) had in absence of fire begun to encroach as an invader into this sylvan Eden. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

191. Appreciative of what it receives- Close-up "photo-quadrant" of local sward of long-beak or Sprengel's sedge presented in the first photograph of bur oak forest treated in this series. This is the very fleeting maximum intensity of light that these shoots will receive.Short duration of light from early morning rays on a north slope in Nebraska Sandhills. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June.

192. Forest and sunflecks- Nebraska Sandhills bur oak forest and shade-adapted herbaceous species. Light conditions of early morning, the major part of day during which light could reach ground level of this north-slope forest, provided a textbook illustration of the sunfleck phenomenon. In dense-canopy plant communities like forest (and even grassland swards) sunlight penetrates through foliage at varying lengths of time. The shortest of these light periods or bouts (time lengths or durations of light at whatever light intensity) which can last only a few seconds up to several minutes are known as sunflecks (Smith et al., 1989; Chazdon and Pearcy, 1991). The converse of sunflecks are shadeflecks which are shade fluctuations due to cloud cover between shaded spots and the sun. In vegetation, such as that of a bur oak forest featured here, wind movement of leaves, travel of Earth relative to sun, and any cloud cover are responsible for the ever-changing state of light that penetrates to lower strata of the range plant community. The general condition or phenomenon of changing or dynamic light as to duration and related intensity or "fluctuation in irradiance" as it was described by Chazadon and Pearcy (1991, p. 760) is an all-important abiotic factor in growth and survival of plants in lower layers of range vegetation-- the understorey of this bur oak forest. Light dynamics interacts with other factors (abiotic and biotic) such as defoliation, precipitation, and, as in this north-slope forest, aspect. Dense shade produced by the large leaves and close interlocking crowns of bur oak on the aspect most shielded from sunlight resulted in severe conditions of light deficiency related stress for understorey plants in this bur oak forest. Range plants in lower layers of this north-slope bur oak-dominated forest community were sciophytes (sciophytes), "shade-loving" species of the highest adaptation. There were a few, though extremely patchy or irregular, layers of woody plants below the forest canopy. These vegetational strata were made up primarily of regenerating bur oak (seedlings, saplings, and poles), American elm, green ash, and, least of all, eastern red cedar. This photographer did not see any shrub species. The herbaceous layer (which was also the ground layer) of this forest range was dominated mostly by long-beak or Sprengel's sedge with Virginia wildrye the associate species. The major--and about the only--forb was anise root (Osmorhiza longistylis). This virgin range vegetation was a fine representation of old-growth bur oak forest (even if there were too many shadows to show it to best advantage). Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

193. A study in shadows- Closer-in photograph of the two big bur oaks and associated herbaceous layer introduced in the last slide (second slide of the preceding pair of photographs). This will be about all--and clearly the most (greatest intensity and longest duration of)--light that the understorey of this north slope bur oak forest will receive, and this was close to longest day of the year. Early morning and late evening were the major (about the only) times that sunlight could fall on the ground at this extreme north aspect. The phenomenon of sunflecks as explained in the preceding caption was obvious. Understorey was herbaceous, except for basal sprouts of bur oak (see below), and consisted primarily of long-beak sedge with some Canada wildrye. The only forb of note was anise root (Osmorhiza longistylis). This was virgin vegetation in structure and composition and in all layers; a good representation of climax bur oak forest range. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

194. About as bright as it ever gets- The slant of earlier morning light on this north slope is just about as much photosynthetically active radiation as the understorey of this north-slope, Nebraska Sandhills bur oak forest ever gets. These paired photographs presented an example of light dynamics in the understorey layer of this densely shaded forest range. The second of these two photographs was at a closer distance to trees, but the major difference in pattern of light and shade on the forest floor was due to changing radiation that occurred with passage of time. These photo-dynamics resulted from 1) variation due to the diurnal (day-and-night) cycle of light and 2) annual cycle due to travel of Earth on its yearly orbit around the sun. Sunflecks lasting only a few minutes or, perhaps more commonly, mere seconds (or fractions of seconds) are largely due to wind movement of leaves in the forest canopy. This rapid photo-dynamics--very short-term spots of alternating sun and shade--could not be captured in photographs or sequences photographs, but the prevalence of light dynamics, hence the concept of sunflecks, was represented photographically. Trees and saplings in these slides were all bur oak. The herbaceous layer was mostly long-beak sedge with some Canada wildrye and, even less, anise root. Old-growth bur oak forest serving as a reminder of what a virgin forested range was like in a most unlikely grassland region. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

195. Shade-adapted range plants- This two-slide set of a north-slope, Nebraska Sandhills bur oak forest featured the 1) herbaceous understorey dominated by long-beak sedge with Canada wildrye as associate species and anise root as principal (essentially sole) forb and 2) base of a mature bur oak with stump sprouts and a sapling. The sapling was at such distance (about a foot and a half) away from the trunk of the adult tree that it was apparently a separate tree derived from an acorn (most likely the adult bur oak it was closest to). Thus this bur oak sapling appeared to be a sexual offspring of the adult oak, a separate and unique genetic individual produced by an adult bur oak through fruit. It was possible that this sapling grew from an acorn produced by a neighboring bur oak and transported next to the big oak shown here by a combination of gravity, wind, and steep slope or by a food-storing squirrel. There was some probability that this sapling was actually a basal sprout, secondary shoot, that arose from the adult tree, but this seemed not to be the case. By contrast, the small stump sprouts to the right of the sapling were asexual offspring from the large bur oak. In this case the new oak shoots (stump sprouts or stump suckers which are secondary shoots) were clones (clonal progeny) of the parent tree. These were genetically identical to the big bur oak from which they arose. Stump sprouts were secondary shoots of the existing bur oak tree the same as new limbs, branches, and buds. Such clonal shoots are often called offshoots. This asexual reproduction is vegetative reproduction (synonyms), human horticultural forms of include grafting and budding. More (and more clear) examples of suckering from healthy, uninjured, mature bur oak was shown below near end of this section. Almost all tree species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction, but sexual regeneration is less successful in forest of dense shade unless the species are relative in tolerance (Tolerant or Very Tolerant). Vegetative regeneration is not limited (at least not nearly as much so) because the parent tree can translocate photosynthate and other nutrients to its own shoots (clonal organs). By contrast, sexually produced progeny are their "own plants" and must be able to survive under the shade of their parents at age classes ranging from seedling through sapling to pole-size. Most of these individual smaller trees--at least in species having lower tolerance--die. An example of this reality was the stick (at left of trunk and sapling) which was the remains of a small sapling tht could not survive in the shade of (compete with) the aduld bur oak. Burns and Honkala (1990) reported that bur oak has usually be interpreted as being Intermediate in tolerance rating although certain observers viewed bur oak as more tolerant than other climax oaks such as northern red and white oak. In the Prairie Peninsula Region however bur oak stands have been invaded by other oaks including white oak, and bitternut hickory (Burns and Honkala, 1990). This was far to the east and on more mesic habitats than in the Nebraska Sandhills where the more mesophytic oaks and hickories are absent. These same authors specified that in forests to the east and north bur oak died from suppression (due largely to shading?) after reaching sapling size. That same response was frequent in the north-slope Sandhills bur oak forest described here. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

196. Dominants of a deep, dark lower layer- Local sunlit patch of the herbaceous layer in a north-slope bur oak forest in Nebraska Sandhills. Plant species seen here were the climax herbaceous species that dominates the understorey of a sandhills bur oak forest..Long-beak or Sprengel's caric sedge (Carex sprengelii) was the dominant--almost exclusive--species with Canada wildrye the associate species. Anise root was the only forb of consequence in the herbaceous layer. These were reported as characteristic (indicator) herbaceous species in bur-oak dominated range vegetation (Barker and Whitman, 1989, ps.17-18). The first of these two photographs was of a single-species stand of long-beak sedge. Second photograph included a shoot of Canada wildrye accompanying the long-beak sedge. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

197. Contaminated understorey- Sward of herbaceous layer of a north-slope bur oak forest in Nebraska Sandhills consisting of long-beak or Sprengel's sedge and of naturalized Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis). Kentucky bluegrass and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) are two widespread Eurasian, perennial festucoid grasses introduced by the white man that have natrualized widely in North America. These two introduced grasses are commonly used throughout the greater Northern Great Plains Region (as well as areas of adjoining regions) for grazing and, in case of smooth brome, for both pasture and hay. They continue to have ample opportunities for naturalization and establishment across a vast acreage, especially on disturbed sites in humid through semiarid zones, so they are properly regarded as naturalized range plants.. Continued heavy mowing up to edge of the north-slope, old-growth bur oak forest described heein enabled both Kentucky bluegrass (as shown here) and smooth brome (covered below) to invade outer parts of the native herbaceous understorey of this bur oak stand. This invasion allowed displacment, to varying extents, of native graminoid species like long-beak sedge and Canada wildrye. These two agronomic, Eurasian grasses were able to outcompete natives only where there was continued disturbance by repeated, heavy mowing over specific locations or of adjacent areas from which the exotics could spread for short distances into unmowed native sward. The sward shown here was an example of the latter situation. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, peak flowering stage of both long-beak sedge and Kentucky bluegrass.

198. Long-beak or Sprengel's caric sedge (Carex sprengelii)- Three photographs showing progressively greater detail of sexual shoots on the dominant herbaceous species in the understorey of a north-slope Nebraska Sandhills bur oak forest. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, peak flowering stage just after anthesis.

199. Broadleafed Lone Ranger- Anise root (Osmorhiza longistylis) in the herbaceous layer of the understorey of a north-slope bur oak forest in Nebraska Sandhills. This was only forb that this photographer could find in this climax forest range. It is a characteristic species; generally a dominant and indicator species in the bur oak-dominated forests of this region (Barker and Whitman, 1989, p.18). Its graminoid neighbors were long-beak caric sedge, the dominant, and Canada wildrye, the associate species. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, late pre-bloom phenological stage.

200. Invasion at the edge- Lower and outer edge of a north-slope bur oak forest in Nebraska Sandhills with an individual eastern red cedar prominently and happily growing in a mid-layer of vegetation. This immediate local was just above Minnechaduza Creek. This accounted for the lush stand of herbaceous riparian vegetation in the foreground. which "crept in" into this "photo-plot" useed to show size of the cedar relative to typical size of adult bur oak (to immediate right of eastern red cedar). Human suppression of fire had permitted eastern red cedar to establish sporadically both along edge and in interior of the bur oak-dominated forest. Most of the herbaceous riparian vegetation was the introduced Eurasian grass, smooth brome which invaded the bur oak understorey under frequent, heavy mowing. Also present with much cover and density, though lacking height of the bromegrass,was another Eurasian grass, Kentucky bluegrass. Other riparian species were native grasslike plants (Cyperaceae) that were still only in vegetative stages and unidentifiable by this worker. These had, however, been overwhelmed by the introduced grasses. The only native plants that could persist under cover of the agronomic grasses (which were competitive with native herbaceous species only under heavy mowing) were bur oak, green ash, American elm, and eastern red cedar. And mowing wiped out all plants of these tree species except saplings and adult trees. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

201. Bur oak stand at the edge and changed by man- Part of the perimeter of the north-slope Sandhills bur oak forest adjacent to a field of smooth bromegrass. Extension of close (short-height) mowing, over a number of years, into the edge of the bur oak forest had either directly killed out long-beak sedge, Canada wildrye, and anise root and/or permitted invasion of smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass that "choked out" (outcompeted, overshadded, etc.) these natives. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

202. Advance guard of bur oak-dominated vegetation being invaded by enemy legions- Two views of a bur oak forest with herbaceous layer(s) that were highly man-modified. This local small stand of bur oak stood in stark contrast to the virgin climax bur oak forest featured above. These two photographs showed the outer- and lowermost perimeter of the bur oak community covered in this section. The adult bur oaks and a few patches of the natural understorey beneath mature trees had persisted (where oak trunks were too close together to permit entry and operation of rotary mowers [=shreaders]) along this perimenter. Generally, however, continued close mowing of the range vegetation had done two things: 1) prevented regeneration of bur oak by cutting off all bur oak seedlings and 2) largely converted the natural herbaceous understorey to an anthropogenic or manmade (=artificial) layer of smooth brome with local stands of Kentucky bluegrass. Change in species composition of the herbaceous layer(s), replacement of native species with naturalized Eurasian species, was due to either direct killing of long-beak sedge, Canada wildrye, and anise root by defoliation or indirectly by reducing competitiveness of these range species and/or favoring the taller-growing smooth bromegrass along with denser-growing, more cutting-toleraant Kentucky bluegrass. It was explained above that both of these introduced, agronomic forage grasses have naturalized throughout much of the North America range country. Where mowing disturbance (= abnormal defoliation regimen) occurred throughout much of the growing season the understorey was converted from an herbaceous layer of native grasslike, grass, and forb species to one of naturalized agronomic grasses (ie. conversion from native to naturalized range plants). Also, the lower woody layer(s) was totally eliminated because mowing prevented regeneration of all tree species. Beyond doubt or debate, continued close mowing as had been practiced on this forest range for years will eventually eliminate the bur oak forest (as soon as the already old trees die off) and convert the plant community into a manmade grassland of smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass, a farm field of domestic forages. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

203. Artificial understorey- Continued close mowing by roatary shredders killed out--directly or indirectly--the climax herbaceous species (long-beak sedge, Canada wildrye, anise root) of a bur oak forest understorey and converted the sward to a single-species layer of smooth brome.A small remnant of smooth bromegrass remained uncut where this beautiful trunk of an old-growth specimen of bur oak prevented mowing (an inexperienced or lazy shredder operator did not get close enough to the oak). The other glaring outcome of mowing was absence of regeneration of bur oak, dominant tree species, and green ash, the associate species. If present mowing practices continue (and they obviously had been in effect for a number of years) there will eventually be no bur oak forest left. Instead, the plant community will be a monoculture of smooth brome (with local spots of Kentucky bluegrass). All native vegetation will be wiped out (ie. the forest range will be no more and a hay field will have replaced it). Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

204. Genuine-article understorey- Two trunks of large bur oak prevented close mowing of the native herbaceous understorey comprised of long-beak or Sprengel's caric sedge, the dominant, and Canada wildrye, the associate species. Survival of these climax species permitted some of the composition and structure of a bur oak forest range to persist. This part of the old-growth bur oak forest that had developed on a north slope in the Nebraska Sandhills was mowed with less frequency than some of the other forest understorey with the result that the climax species composition of the sward (herbaceaous layer) persisted. Tree regeneration (bur oak, green ash, American elm) was still completely prevented as any seedling was mowed off where density of adult trees and saplings did not prevent entry of rotary mowers. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

205. Nebraska Sandhills bur oak grove- A bur oak grove, the outermost edge of which was shown here, had developed on a sunlit ridge conterminous with the north-slope bur oak forest described immediately above. Both phases--open, fullsun grove and dense, deeply shaded forest--were climax range vegetation and represented the extremes physiographic and structural manisfestations of the bur oak forest cover type. The greatest differences were in the understorey vegetation, as to vegetational structure and species composition of herbaceous and woody (shrub and smalltree) layers. The bur oak grove phase (or community, if the two extremes were to be viewed as two different range plant communities) had no species of woody plants except bur oak (in contrast to American elm, green ash, and eastern red cedar in the north-slope forest). Also absent from the bur oak grove on the drier and more sunlit ridge was long-beak cric sedge which made up most of the herbaceous biomass on the north-slope forest. Instead, Canada wildrye, associate on the north-slope forest, was the overall dominant of the herbaceous layer in the bur oak grove. Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) was a locally dominant herbaceous species and the most abundant forb in the oak grove. Anise root, the only forb, on the north-slope forest was absent in the grove vegetation. This bur oak grove was on the border of a field of the Eurasian perennial grass, smooth brome, which, as shown above, had invaded the understorey of a north-slope bur oak forest under repeaded close, mechanical mowing when the native long-beak sedge, Canada wildrye, and anise root were killed out by such extreme (intense and frequent) defoliation. Where trunks of bur oak were too close together to permit intrusion of this bloody equipment and overmowing the native, cool-season Canaada wildrye dominated the understorey other than in microsites where giant ragweed and bur oak stump sprouts held this honor. Physiogonomy and structure of this Sandhills bur oak grove was presented in this two-slide episode. Details of the herbaceous layer of this grove was presented in the next two-slide episode. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

206. Edge of a bur oak grove- Lower zone of tree trunks and herbaceous understorey of a Nebraska Sandhills bur oak grove. This stand of climax vegetation was conterminous with the north-slope bur oak forest featured earlier. In contrast to the deeply shaded understorey of the bur oak forest in which long-beak caric sedge was dominant and Canada wildrye was the associate species, the herbaceous layer of the grove phase of the bur oak cover type was dominated by Canada wildrye except in small areas (microhabitats) where giant ragweed held supremancy or where basal sprouts of bur oak overtopped the dominant cool-season, festucoide grass. Canada wildrye was featured in both of these photographs with the local sward in left foreground of first slide shown at close range in the second slide. Some of the dead (light brown or buckskin-colored) shoots of Canada wildrye included some of the previous year's growth (slightly more faded) as well as some of those of the current growing season. Almost all of the current year's shoots of Canada wildrye were still in the boot. It was not known why a few of the current growing season's shoots had already matured, died and gone into dormancy. Did make for a nice contrasting picture with Canada wildrye very conspicuous. Giant ragweed, a warm-season annual composite of mature size that lives up to its common name, was still in early growth and thus not shown in proportion to its yield of biomass at peak standing crop. This herbaceous understorey was the vernal society even though it was summer and bur oak were representative of the estival aspect. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

207. Parents, progeny, and playmates- Sprouting (suckering), the production of secondary shoots, from base of trunks in non-injured adult bur oak trees. Bur oak in both of these "photo-plots" were on a ridge at edge of a bur oak grove where light could penetrate from all directions throughout most of the day. This was a different condition of radiation than that of the north-slope bur oak forest described at beginning of this section. Differences in understories of the bur oak grove considered here and the bur oak forest described previously were explained in the immediately preceding caption. It was strikingly evident that full-grown (adult) bur oak produced basal sprouts in both deep shade and full sunlight (forest and grove stands, respectively). This was an understandable characteristic when it was born in mind that these secondary shoots were being supported by the parent shoot (ie. sprouts were a photosynthate sink from the parent tree that was the a nutrient (food) source for the basal suckers. (Sprouting frrom stumps and basal trunks of bur oak was considered in more detail in the next succeeding set of photographs.) What was substantially different in understories of bur oak forest versus grove was in herbaceous species and tree species other than bur oak (see again preceding caption). Mature sexual shoots of Canada wildrye, the overall dominant herbaceous species in the bur oak grove, with conspicuous spikes were present in the first of these two p;hotographs. Also prominent in this first slide was the pioneering, annual composite, giant ragweed. The second slide presented a fullsun shot of a basal sprout of bur oak at edge of the grove where frequent mowing had killed out the native Canada wildrye and its replacement with the introduced Eurasian Kentucky bluegrass. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June, estival aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Juchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Nebraska Sandhills-Sand Hills Ecoregion 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

208. Living stumps- Two stumps of bur oak with prolific and vigorous sprouting or suckering. These trees were at edge of a bur oak-dominated forest in the Nebraska Sandhills. Stump sprouting is an adaptation to fire, a key abiotic factor of grasslands. Bur oak is one of the most fire-adapted Quercus species in North America with sprouting from stumps or injured tree trunks one of its most important means of regeneration. In fact, bur oak sprouts prolifically even from old trees and those not subjected to injury. This was shown in several preceding photographs for bur oak growing in deep shade and fullsun environments. Bur oak has long been recognized for its "thick fire-resistant bark" (Burns and Honkala, 1990), but prolific sprouting (suckering) is an accompanying adaptation to recurrent fire that was evolved in the generally fire-prone habitat of this species biological range. Burns and Honkala (1990) explained that prolific sprouting was common following burning or cutting of bur oak only up to pole-size with such secondary shoots being of poor quality except those of seedlings. This latter conclusion was confusing to say the least given that shoots of seedlings are not sprouts (secondary shoots) at all but rather primary shoots derived from acorns. These same authors noted that larger trees (mature or full-grown age class?) also produced basal sprouts but that vigor and quality of these sprouts had not been evaluated relative to age, size, etc. of parent trees. The two examples shown here were pictorial evidence that seemed to contradict findings reported in Burns and Honkala (1990). The profuse (and plenty vigorous) stump sprouts shown off here were from mid-size trees (a foot or more in basal diameter). This was considerably smaller than the full-grown bur oaks presented in the immediately preceding set of two photographs, and these appeared vigorous enough too. Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June.

209. Fire ran through the bur oaks- At the outer edge of a grove form of a bur oak forest along a small stream through a hot fire with high flames had burnt just two to three prior to time of photograph. This forest range was in the Dissected Till Plains of the Central Lowlands physiographic province of northeast Kansas which is about the southern limit of forest dominated by bur oak. Thee two slides presented an outside-the-forest view to show physiogonomy and structure of the plant community. The lush growth of the herbaceous layer was dominated by seedlings of giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) with scattered plants of Canada wildrye, Canada wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), and pokeberry or pokeweed (Phytolacca americana). Giant ragweed is a pioneering annual; in fact, it is the most abundant pioneer or colonizing forb in this area. The hot fire had been a disturbance of such severity as to create an ideal habitat for invasion by giant ragweed which "eclipsed" the other herbaceous species which were perennials. These perennials had been present years before the burn, but they, too, appeared to have benefitted from the fire jucging by growth of other plants of these species in a few isolated spots that did not burn. This phenomenon was explained in captions below. The saplings in foreground of these (and subsequent) photographs were all hackberry and American elm. Almost every one of these saplings (and seedlings that were too small to show up in the slides) were top-killed by the heat of the obviously hot fire which burned with intensity adequate to partially kill lower branches of bur oak. This latter feature of the fire was shown and described in greater detail below. In this region most climax bottomland forests are dominated by various combinations of hackberry, American elm, slippery elm, and green ash (the Tolerant climax species) with old trees of such Intolerant, colonizing species as eastern cottonwood, sycamore, black walnut, and honey locust persisting into climax as associates. This is Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) cover types 93 and 94. These mixed hardwood forests are the climatic climax. By contrast, bur oak forests, Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) cover type 42, are a pyric climax. Differences in alluvial soils of these floodplain forest are not so different as to account for differences in forest range types. In the absence of periodic fire the bur oak forest would eventually proceed through plant succession to a hackberry-American elm climatic climax. That is, it would be the potential natural vegetation along streams in this climatic regime as interpreted from perspective of polyclimax and climax pattern theories. Or, what amounts to the same thing, bottomland forests dominated by hackberry and American elm would be the edaphic climax, the natural termination of such stream bottom seres. Either way, it is only periodic hot fires that maintain bur oak, which is Intermediate in tolerance (Burns and Honkala, 1990), as climax along stream bottoms (ie. bur oak is a fire type, a pyric climax). In monoclimax theory all such forests are postclimax to the climatic (= zonal or regional) climax of tallgrass prairie. Individuals of bur oak would undoubted persist into a hackberry-American elm climax as bur oaks are relatively long-lived. Burns and Honkala, (1990) reported that some bur oaks bear fruit up to ages of 400 years, the longest of any Quercus species in North America. Progression through plant succession from a seral bur oak-dominated forest to a hackberry or hackberry-elm climax forest was the pattern of vegetation development predicted for gallery or floodplain forests in northeast Kansas by Bellah and Hulbert (1974) and Abrams (1986). Abrams (1985) concluded that fire frequency (mean fire interval) bur oak-chinquapin oak gallery forests in the Flint Hills ranged from about eleven to twenty years with an average "somewhere between that range" but with a historic interval of two to three years. Clearly the historic frequency of two to three years would have maintained the oak forests and prevented progression to hackberry or hackberry-elm. It is likely that even an average fire return interval of roughly fifteen years in contemporary time would maintain the bur oak-chinquapin oak forest. Again, bur oak forest (SAF 42) is a fire type or pyric climax. Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Kuchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Western Corn Belt Plains, Loess and Glacial Drift Plains Ecoregion 47i (Chapman et al., 2001).

210. Late spring after fire-Apperaance of a bur oak grove two to three months following a hot fire that effectively top-killed seedlings and saplings of hackberry and American elm that had established beneath the bur oak canopy. Fire intensity was adequate to create a disturbance that favored rapid establishment of a dense population of giant ragweed, the most common and prolific pioneering plant in this region of the Dissected Till Plains of northeast Kansas. Rapidly growing seedlings of giant ragweed, an annual composite, accounted for the greatest herbaceous cover, but there was also an abundance of Canada wildrye and pokeweed (though widely scattered with most cover being local) along with local exclusive colonies of Canada wood nettle (see photograph and caption below). At outer margin (just under forest canopy) there were large individuals of what appeared to be--without much familarity of early growth shoots--giant sumpweed (Iva xanthifolia). The first of these two photographs was a closer-in view of the bur oak at center-left in the second photograph of the preceding two-slide set. The trunk of this tree had split almost to ground level yet was still standing and healthy. Heartwood of a tree is dead tissue anyway so as long as the tree was not weakened to point of crashing and did not have heart-rot it remained as healthy is if the trunk was intact. The second of the photographs of this caption presented a summary view showing several top-killed saplings of hackberry and American elm. The rightmost bur oak (center-right) sported an old fire scar and ws in every way healthy from all outward appearances. This fire-scarred tree was featured below. Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Kuchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Western Corn Belt Plains, Loess and Glacial Drift Plains Ecoregion 47i (Chapman et al., 2001).

211. Old and the new after a fire- Close-growing and very old bur oaks (first slide) along with seedlings of giant ragweed and this season's shoots of Canada wood neetle, pokeweed, and Canada wildrye as an herbaceous layer plus some saplings of hackberry and American elm (see especially second slide) comprised the range vegetation of a bur oak forest two to three months following a hot surface fire. In the background there were several pole-sized trees and saplings of red mulberry (Morus rubra) that formed an erratic lower tree layer. One of these saplings was shown in center midground of the second slide. The sapling in center foreground of this second photograph was one of the few young hackberries that was not top-killed by the fire. Other saplings of hackberry and American elm that were not topkilled outright had already started to "peel bark" and appearedlikely to die. The hackberry sapling featured here defied the odds and appeared ready--at this juncture anyway--to take its place ultimately as an adult in the grove of bur oak. It was explained in the immediately preceding caption that bur oak is a fire type forest. In absence of periodic fire bur oak--other than as a few persistent old-age trees--would be replaced by hackberry and American elm which would be the climax dominants on this bottomland sere. The latter two are Tolerant species whereas bur oak is Intermediate in tolerance rank (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Of course, fire is as much as a part of climate (or a consequence of climate if one prefers) as drought, wind storms, and floods. More precisely, lightening is as much part of the atmosphee as precipitation and temperature and fires from lightening with fuel made possible by climate are major factors responsible for maintenance of bur oak forests within the surrounding zonal vegetation of tallgrass parairie. Various studies such as those by Kucera (1960) and Bragg and Hulbert (1976) showed that woody plant communities, including forests, expanded in the tallgrass prairie region since European settlement (due in large part to fire suppression). Abrams (1985) estimated that the mean fire interval for bur oak-chinquapin dominated gallery forest in the Flint Hills of Kansas was two to three years and roughly eleven to twenty years with intervention by white settlers and contemporary man. Abrams (1986) documented this phenomenon and predicted that hackberry, elm, and redbud (Cercis canadensis) would gradually replace bur oak and chinquapin oak--at least in absence or reduced frequency of fire--as the climax forests for bottomland forest sites in the Flint Hills and Dissected Till Plains in northeast Kansas. Abrams (1992) issued a later report based on his earlier findings and concluded that for some areas of Kansas the presettlement vegetation of tallgrass prairie had become either a bur oak-hackberry overstorey with a hackberry-elm understorey or a chinquapin oak overstorey with a elm-redbud-chinquapin oak understorey. This analysis struck the current author as an interim report because it seemed likely to him that the ultimate state would be a climax hackberry-elm forest. Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Kuchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Western Corn Belt Plains, Loess and Glacial Drift Plains Ecoregion 47i (Chapman et al., 2001).

212. Just another encounter with fire- Outer edge of a bur oak grove two to three months following a surface fire that burnt through this bottomland forest. Judging from fire scars and general understanding of bur oak forest and the natural envioroment of this area it was obvious that this was the most recent of many such fires in these old bur oaks. The fire had been hot enough to create a disturbance so severe that giant ragweed, the most abundant pioneer species in this area, had already established populations that pretty much excluded other herbaceous species except the climax perennials, Canada wildrye and Canada woodnettle (wood nettle). Even these shade-tolerant and already present perennial herbs appeared to have benefitted greatly form the fire. Without this fire a dense layer of bur oak leaves would functioned as mulch and largely smothered most herbaceous plants. Such a layer of large bur oak leaves (= mulch) was present in several small spots that did not burn. Giant ragweed was absent from these and Canada wildrye plants were smaller than those growing on land that had burned. Note that the lowermost branches of bur oak were largely leafless, but with enough leaves to prove that they were still alive (barely) and that heat from the last flames injured (appeared to have more-or-less killed) these smaller, lower limbs. This was an example of fire-pruning, but such defoliation did not necessarily kill these organs. It was likely that new shoots would arise from intercalary meristem on these lower branches. The sapling to right of foremost bur oak was hackberry. It leafed-out following the blaze, but was nonetheless severely injured by the heat from had to be an unusually hot fire. This one of the few hackberry saplings that was not totally top-killed and it had entire strips the total height of the shoot that already had peeling bark. All American elm sapling in the understorey were top-killed. Abrams (1985) studied fire frequency within gallery forests of northeast Kansas (the Fllint Hills) and found a natural fire frequency of two to three years and an extended mean fire interval of roughly fifteen years during time of occupation by European man. Either the natural or anthropogenic fire frequency would probably maintain bur oak groves and prevent development of hackberry-American elm forest on the forest range site featured here. The fire scar on the foremost bur oak was an old wound that was already present and in process of healing before the recent blaze. This "honor scar" was presented and described further in the next slide. Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Kuchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Western Corn Belt Plains, Loess and Glacial Drift Plains Ecoregion 47i (Chapman et al., 2001).

213. New beauty in an scar- An old fire scar on an ancient bur oak that was renewed by a surface fire only two to three months prior to time of photograph. The tree had started started healing the wound caused from previous fire(s) and the most recent burn did not harm the new bark tht was slosly growing over the scar. This was a direct view of the scar that was shown from the side in the foremost bur oak featured in the immediately preceding two slides. Forbs growing in front of the oak were young seedlings of giant ragweed, the herbaceous species that most benefitted from the recent fire. This is the "price" ("rent" so to speak) to be paid by the fire-adapted bur oak for living in a pyric habitat in which less fire-adapted and more tolerant hardwoods such as hackberry and elms cannot survive. In absence of periodic fire hackberry, green ash, American elm, and perhaps boxelder would eventually replace bur oak through plant succession. These more tolerant species are the climatic climax whereas bur oak is a pyric climax (ie. bur oak forest is, in effect, a fire type in the overall environment of the Dissected Till Plains or, sometimes, Glacial Drift Plains of northeastern Kansas). Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June.

214. After the latest in a long history- Inside a bur oak grove through which a hot surface fire burned two or three months before. This bottomland forest range had developed along a small stream at edge of a tallgrass prairie in the Dissected Drift Plains of northeastern Kansas. There were several "featured attractions" in these two photogrphs. The most prominent of these was the large fire scar on one bur oak trunk that extended from the ground to over 15 feet in height. this was an old scar from previous fire(s) that was "freshened up" by the most recent burn. Another, though much smaller, fire scar on another bur oak tunk was presented and discussed in the immediately preceding photograph and caption. The current author interpreted bur oak forests in the Dissected Till Plains as a fire-climax type with bottomland forests on this forest site in absence of recurrent fire developing through plant succession to a climax hackberry-American elm forest. Effects from fire wounds and scars on bur oak are probably not know with any certainity. Entry of disease pathogens (eg. various forms of fungal rot) and insects through tree wounds, including those caused by fire, is always a possibility. One common suspicion--though perhaps without scientific proof--is that fire (heat or charring of wood) has something of a cauterizing effect so that disease entry is less likely with fire wounds/scars than with similar wounds (eg. those ranging from ax blazes to debarking by falling trees). The charred (charcoal) surface of a fire wound, even a fresh one) is a different (drier, perhaps chemically) environment than the moist, peeled-surface wound left by mechanical injury. What is certain from even brief scanning of the literature is that bur oak fire scars as records of fire regimes, especially fire frequency, have been analyzed in considerably more detail than the impacts of fire damage on tree health. It is also certain that fire in bur oak-dominated and influenced communities (forests, open groves, savannahs, even prairies) is a natural part of the habitat of this range vegetation. Furthermore, it follows that bur oak is adapted to fire and, was the species not so adapted to and tolerant of fire to the degree it is, this species would not be a member of these range plant communities. It is axiomatic that the overall impact of fire on bur oak is minimally adversive, neutral at least, and almost assuredly positive for survival in range vegetation of which it is an important member. Peterson and Reich (2001) concluded that on bur oak was a fire-resister, a designation given by Rowe (1983) to shade-intolerant tree species that suffer little or no damage from low-severity fres. Peterson and Reich (2001) explained that "[f]ire rarely killed mature bur oaks, even those in the smaller size classes ...". They (Peterson and Reich, 2001) noted further that even saplings of bur oak grew corky bark of such thickness as to protect the cambium from most fires. Burns and Honkala (1990) cited a volume of literature attesting to the thick fire-resistant bark of bur oak, which along with its general drought-tolerance, accounted for presnece of bur oak on xeric sites as well as mesic ones where bur oak was an associate on sugar maple-American beech forests. Another "featured attraction" in this pair of photographs, especially the second one, was the death (or near death) of shoots of hackberry and American elm saplings standing in stark contrast to the survival of adult trees of bur oak even with fire scars where sizable portions of their trunks were removed. This is a photographic lesson showing that it is primarily periodic fire (with browsing obviously less important) that maintains bur oak groves and forests which would otherwise develop into hackberry-elm forest with only persistent and senescing adult bur oaks (at status of associate species at most). Bur oak forests and woodland as pyric climax (a climax fire type) was discussed in above photo captions (complete with citation of relevant literature) so that further discussion was not deemed necessary or desirable in this current caption. This was an opportune point to acknowledge that in more xeric environments (eg. those to the west the Dissected Till Plains such as the Smoky Hills or Sandhills in subhumid to semiarid precipitation zones) it is probable that limited soil moisture, especially in drought, rather than fire is the primary variable responsible for maintenance of bur oak and restriction of Tolerant tree species like hackberry, elm, box elder, etc. Also featured here was presence of red mulberry (lower branch with large leaves extending downward from upper-left corner of first photograph). Red mulbery was usually observed to be a smaller tree of the second woody (lower tree) layer, but as one of the--if not the single most--consistent tree species in bottomland forests in humid and subhumid zones extending from the Cross Timbers and Central Prairies in Texas, Ozark Mountains in Missouri and Oklahoma, and through to the Great Plains in Nebraska. In southern mixed hardwood forests, such as those in northcentral Texas, red mulberry frequently grew to relatively large size (eg. 16-18 inch DBH) with straight boles. Red mulberry was found as a consistent member of bottomland forests were dominance varied from that by eastern cottonwood, sycamore, pecan, bur oak, elm, green ash, and hackberry or sugarberry and where soil texture ranged from primarily sandy to predominantly clay. In progressing northward, dominance by members of Ulmaceae goes from exclusively sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) as in north Texas to side-by-side co-dominance of sugarberry and hackberry (C. occidentalis) in northern Oklahoma to exclusively hackberry in northern Kansas and Nebraska. Red mulberry grew with an array of dominant tree species. Again this was usually, though not always, as an understorey or lower-height tree species. Species in the herbaceous layer shown in these two photographs included giant ragweed, Canad wood nettle, Canada wildrye, pokeweed, and giant sumpweed in that order based on estimated relative cover. Giant ragweed, an annual composite, was the number one pioneer species of denuded land in this area and far-and-away the dominant of the herbaceous layer except where there were local colonies of Canada woodnettle farther in the interior of this bur oak forest. Canada wildrye, a festucoid grass of the barley or wheat tribe (Hordeae or Tritaceae) that responds to disturbance as a decreasere, was able to "hold its own" against the rapid-growing and rank seedlings of giant ragweed. Giant sumpweed was present as sparse though very conspicuous individuals. Spring Creek, Marshall County, Kansas. Mid- June, vernal aspect. FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). No Kuchler unit for bur oak forest; closest was Bur Oak Savanna (unit 81 in Kuchler, 1964, unit 72 in .Garrison et al., 1977, including map). SAF 42 (Bur Oak). In Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) would be Quercus macrocarpa Association 122.11? (say 111) of Oak-Hickory Series 122.11 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1. Western Corn Belt Plains, Loess and Glacial Drift Plains Ecoregion 47i (Chapman et al., 2001).