Southern and Central Forests II

Forest Range Types of Eastern North America

The fundamental and practical distinction between coniferous and deciduous forests is useful (and was used herein), but precise, non-arbitrary "lines" are impossible when presenting and discussing forest range types in the eastern half of the continent. This is especially the case when climax or potential natural vegetation is used as the basis for forest types (ie. when cover types, or the more specific management cover types, are discussed as being more or less synonymous with permanent forest types). As discussed in detail below, the epic work of Lucy Braun (1950) is still the definitive basis for the ecological discussion and classification of those North American forests which extend from the Atlantic Coast to slightly beyond the Missouri and Mississippi River drainages. Braun (1950) included all the coniferous forests (forest types, regions, etc.)-- the generic "southeastern pine region"--as part of her one Deciduous Forest Formation.  The forest range typzes included in the following section include coniferous, deciduous, and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. This is confusing but unavoidable given the nature of the vegetation and the standard understanding (the Braun interpretation) of ecological relations and classification of  this forest vegetation. Most of the southeastern pine types presented are management cover types maintained silviculturally as more economically valuable coniferous forests rather than as the climax mixed hardwood-pine forest types. In other words, efforts were made to fit the Society of American Foresters (1980) cover types with the climax types of Braun (1950) and the potential natural vegetation units of Kuchler (1966).       The major forest communities or forest zones of eastern North America are broad or wide in their spatial patterns unlike the narrow zonation characteristic of the forests of western North America. The “young” mountains of the western part of the continent are taller (in fact, still getting taller) and as a result have more elevation-based zonation of vegetation than do the geologically older and more eroded (lower) eastern mountains such as the Applachians or Ozarks. So too, are the soils of the Atlantic Coast more zonal (ie. major soil units are larger or broader in spational dimension like those of the vast continental interior whereas soils of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Slope ranges are more of the intrazonal spatial scale. See for illustration the national soil map of dominant soil orders and suborders (Soil Survey Staff, 1998).  Vankat (1979, p. 137) wrote that relief within the eastern deciduous forest “is quite variable” yet earlier Vankat (1979, p. 41) had also correctly noted that “low hills “ were characteristic of much of this deciduous forest region. Again, contrast this with the extreme physiography of the Rockys or Sierra Nevada-Cascade Ranges. The classic and still-definitive work on forests of eastern North America (approximately east of the 98th meridian) is the life’s work of Dr. Lucy Barun (1950). Braun interpreted this entire vegetation as one great forest formation existing as a mosaic of forest regions which in turn were made up of community units that she labeled variously as belts, areas, districts, sections, divisions, etc.     “The Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America is a complex vegetation unit most conspicuously characterized by the prevalence of the deciduous habit of most of its woody constituents. This gives to it a certain uniformity of phsiognomy,      with alternating summer green and winter leafless aspects. Evergreen species, both broad-leaved and needle-leaved, occur in the arboreal and shrub layers, patticularly in seral stages  and in marginal and transitional areas. They are not, however, entirely lacking even in some centrally loocated climax communities” (Braun, 1950, p. 31).         “The Deciduous Forest Formation is made up of a number of climax associations differing from one another in floristic compositon, in physiogonomy, and in genesis or historical origin. While the delimitation of associations may be made on a basis of dominant species, and it is from these that the climax is named, dominants alone fo not suffice for the recognition of these units. … Although the delimitation in space of an association is difficult, if not impossible, it is entirely possible to recognize and to map forest regions which are characterized by the prevalence of specific climax types, or by mosaics of types. These regions are natural entities, generally with readily observable natural boundaries based on vegetational features. … Forest regions must not be confused with climax associations. Even though a region is named for the climax association normally developing within it, it should not be assumed that the region is coextensive with the area where that climax can develop. Each of the several climaxes, although characterizing a specific region, nevertheless occurs in other regions.” (Braun, 1950, p. 33-34).Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) listed nine forest regions making up the Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America:                 1. Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region,                 2. Western Mesophytic Forest Region,                 3. Oak-Hickory Forest Region,                 4. Oak-Chestnut Forest Region,                 5. Oak Pine Forest Region,                 6. Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region,                 7. Beech-Maple Forest Region,                 8. Maple-Basswood Forest Region, and                 9. Eastern Hemlock-Eastern White Pine-Northern Hardwoods Region.  Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) interpreted these same combinations of species as forest communities at the scale (both spatial, mostly, and, also, temporal) of climax association  from which, as quoted immediately above, Braun derived the names of forest regions. Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) distinguished between the association-abstract and the association-concrete, a distinction discussed in the review of the derivation of vegetation cover type from the concept of plant association. The Braun association is the association of F.E. Clements. Indeed the entire ecological paradigm on which Braun (1950, ps. 10-15) based her monographic treatment of the North American Deciduous Formation is Clementisan except allowance for and inclusion of edaphic and physiographic climaxes of Cowles, Tansley, etc.  Vankat (1979, ps. 137-150) and Delcourt and Delcourt in Barbour and Billings (2000, ps. 365-378) described eastern deciduous forest vegetation under the Braun (1950) associations of the Clementsian model. It is important to bear in mind that the Braun associations can occur in more than the one forest region bearing the name of the association (eg. the Oak-Pine Association commonly occurs and the Maple-Basswood Association infrequently occurs in parts of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region). Several of the species combinations that delineate deciduous forest regions and associations were also used as forest cover types by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) as for example White Pine-Hemlock (SAF 22), White Pine-Northern Red Oak-Red Maple (SAF 20), Sugar Maple-Basswood (SAF 26), and Beech-Sugar Maple (SAF 60). The Society of American Foresters emphasized that it’s forest cover types were “based on existing tree cover” (… forest as they are today…”) and that some types may be climax while others are “transitory” (ie. seral stages leading to another climax). Braun (1950, p. xiii) specified: “Some of the communities for which composition is given are readily referable to ‘forest cover types’ as defined by the Society of American Foresters”. She then added, “However, an attempt to classsify all communities as to ‘cover types’ would be artificial” and often impossible. Undoubtedly this was due to the differences in classification by Braun’s climax basis (with seral communities clearly specified) versus the existing or present-day forest communities basis of the SAF.  The Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994, p. xi) also specified the criterion of “existing vegetation” and that some rangeland cover types are climax and others are seral. The author of this collection of photographs and descriptions repeatedly reminded readers of this situation, but specified that most of the rangeland and forest cover types included herein were climax vegetation. That criterion exist for forest range types of the Eastern Deciduous forest Formation with most photographs being of either old-growth or second-growth forest with climax species composition as described in the classic literature such as Braun (1950) or Shelford (1963, ps. 17-119). The nine forest regions of Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) were retained with little modification as series in the fairly comprehensive system of vegetation (primarily, climax; secondly, disclimax or subclimax) used in A Classification of North American Biotic Communities by Brown et al. (1998). Their organization of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Formation was: Oak-Hickory Series, Oak-Chestnut Series, Beech-Maple Series, Oak-Pine Series, Maple-Basswood Series, and Hemlock-White Pine-Mixed Hardwood Series within the Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community and Mixed Mesophytic Series and Pine Series within the Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community. The Brown et al. (1998) series were included below following SAF and/or SRM cover type designations. Additional designations as for forest wetlands were shown as required.

Historical Footnote and Editorial

The consistent and persistent use of the eastern deciduous forest associations of Braun (1950) by the foremost contemporary ecologists provides the beginning student of Ecology with a textbook example of the necessity of learning the fundamental concepts— and the language(s) thereof —that are the foundation of his selected field of Biology. No ecological monograph, including those of John E. Weaver or Victor E. Shelford, ever used Clementsian concepts and terminology any more consistently or with any more practical application than did Braun (1950). All three of these (and there were others besides these) patriarchal ecologists of North American vegetation left future generations with not only the seminal but also the definitive treatises of the communities to which they devoted their professional lives Their like, their genre of comprehensive, panaramic, descriptive, first-hand accounts of vegetation on this grand scale, will not likely appear again before icicles hang in Hell. The contemporary research world is hung up on numbers, even generated or simulated (vs. real data) numbers often for numbers-sake alone, and especially numbers of publications. This has gone beyond Lord Kelvin’s admonition to “express it in numbers”,  (indeed Kelvin used actual numbers derived from physical experiments) to the point that quantity is everything and quality (always subsidary to quantity) itself is based on numbers. Not only is there little room for Descriptive Ecology, but there is hardly more for descriptive analysis of experiments and observations because the gold-standard of refereed publications has descended, has been perverted, to the quantitative entity of LPU (Lowest Publishable Unit). A natural length paper based on objectives of the study is split into as many LPUs as possible to extend the author’s bibliography. This procedure does not allow enough results to be included in any one paper to allow a discussion of  findings from a comprehensive perspective. Besides the experimental procedure (complete with lots of numbers and split-nine-ways-to-Sunday replications) is the most important part according to anonymous peer-reviewers.   In an institutional culture where “Publish or Perish” has become prostituted to a realm of pot-boiler papers written from predictable-outcome, piss-ant projects the next generation of Brauns, Weavers, Shelfords are “dead meat” if they devote (ie. sacrifice) their careers to document for eternity the kind of knowledge their “takes a lifetime “ research produced. Such incredible work is left to not only the fully vested or tenured but the tenured full professor of independent financial means at career’s end (and then there is not enough time left to do the work). A key factor in the creative genius and amazing productivity of Frederic E.Clements was that he was able to spend most of his career working for the rich Carnegie Foundation which freed him from the routine of classroom teaching and daily chores of academia thereby enabling him the luxury of a self-proclaimed “escaped professor” (Brewer, 1988, p. 503).  Alternatively, the most lasting and useful research is the province of the academic martyr to whom pursuit of knowledge or satisfaction of curiosity are of higher utility than organizational rank and its financial renumeration.  Thus the Ecology student is left with the classical works of those “giants in the earth” who reigned when knowledge was the domain of a more leisurely, honest, genteel, and collegial time and culture. The scholar of biblical texts cannot read just the several English translations of the Holy Bible. He must also understand the native tongues of Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek in which Holy Writ was written. So too with the “scripture” of Ecology. And the language of vegetation, at least North American vegetation, is Clementsian. The serious student of vegetation must be knowledgable and conversant in this language given that so much of the all-encompassing vegetation literature was written predominately from the view of Clementsian Ecology (and vocabulary). These original, monographic works remain the basis, however distant, of current investigations or even classifications of vegetation. The basic ecological concepts in such natural resource fields as Range Management and Forestry remain Clementsian at root (eg. the Clementsian association is the basis of the forest and range cover types as used in North America). Any who would refuse to familarize themselves with Clementsian Ecology because there are exceptions to and alternative models for some of its general, long temporal-large spatial scales traverse the terrain of ecological literature half blind. In their zeal to reform the basic vegetation paradigm to include, justifiably, the exceptions they end up “throwing the baby out with the bath water”.

Bottomland Forest- Example along a stream in the Ozark Plateau

The following slides and captions described a creek bottom hardwood forest in the Springfield Plateau section of the Ozark Highlands (Mountains) from perspectives of: 1) forest range and 2) plant succession or forest development (dynamics of a forest community). This forest range type was an example of the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p. 65) cover type 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). It was an old-growth forest, but in spite of some hugh trees in the forest the vegetation was at subclimax stage developing into the forest community that is climax for this forest site. Trees of the climax forest community were still young and much smaller than some of the immense individuals of subclimax species. This tract of forest had been undisturbed for decades and it was questionable if any woodcutting had ever been done in this forest other than that associated with clearing of a narrow fenceline along one side of the property line that had been done at least 60 years prior to time of photographs. This forest range community was described--to partial degree or some extent--by Nelson (1987, p. 52; 2005, p. 148) as mesic bottomland forest, but as shown below even when general descriptions were provided for the Ozark Plateau or Ozark Border there were inconsistencies between those and the vegetation that developed on this undisturbed tract of bottomland forest. The first sequence of photographs of this bottomland forest presented the vernal aspect of the vegetation in which the herbaceous layers were at peak standing crop andjust prior to summer dormancy. Emphasis was laid on showing species composition and structure of this forest range when the greatest number and most important indicator species would be visible and flowering. This is the spring season, especially for the cool-season festucoid grasses that are dominants of the herbaceous layer of the understorey. Plant species were described and shown in their spatial relations to each other, but without reference to their successional status or the dynamics of this forest range vegetation. Development of the forest community and dynamics in response to disturbance were discussed in the section that followed this one, and at the estival aspect when many of the herbaceous species had gone into dormancy.

1. A lot of players along the old channel- During some extraordinary flood in decades (probably centuries) past Modoc Creek eroded an accessory or overflow channel. When this Ozark Plateau stream returned to regular or normal flow (receded back to its normal channel) the newly cut, extraordinary flood channel remained as a denuded area that served as a sere on which plant succession progressed. Eventually a late seral or climax forest developed on/in this overflow . channel that had long since been abandoned by Modoc Creek which flowed in its regular channel tha runs parallel to the now-forested former flood channel. The forest (stand might be a more precise term) that developed on bank and bed of the overflow stream channel was conterminous with forest vegetation along the regular channel of Modoc Creek and limestone bluffs above this stream as well as with the forest community (again, stand might be a more explicit term) on the floodplain between the two stream channels. There was a great diversity of tree species within this entire tract of floodplain forest including sycamore, eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltoides), black walnut, red mulberry (Morus rubra), box elder (Acer negundo), chinquapin oak, northern red oak (Quercus rubra), Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii var. shumardii), white ash (Fraxinus americana), sugar maple, bitternut or pignut hickory, American elm (Ulmus americana), red or slippery elm (U. rubra), and western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis var. canina). The successional status of these sundry species (at least some of them) was discussed in another section below. Tree species on the high bank of the overflow stream channel (right side of photograph) were (left to right): Shumard oak, chinquapin oak, and pignut or bitternut hickory. Younger (smaller) trees on the low side of the channel (center and left of photograph) were hackberry and American elm. The woody vine was that of a species of grape (Vitis sp.). Dominant shrub was spicebush (Lindera bezoin); local associate shrub was buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus). Herbaceous dominant of this understorey was silky wildrye (Elymus villosus) with some Virginia wildyre (E. virgincus). Canada or hairy wood brome (Bromus purgans= B. pubescens) was also present but widely scattered and most frequent at bases of tree trunks. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

2. Beneficiaries of many floods- Bottomland hardwood forest on the floodplain of Modoc Creek in western Ozark Plateau. Dominant of herbaceous layer(s) was silky wildrye with local patches of Virginia wildrye. Largest tree in both photographs was sycamore (right of center in midground of first photograph; right margin of midground of second photograph). Other trees included additional sycamore, hackberry, American elm, and chinquapin oak. Sapling in foreground of both photographs was American elm with Virginia creeper climbing in it. Spicebush and buckbrush were visible in both slides. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

3. Spring verdure of floodplain forest- Early morning light showed herbaceous layer(s) of this botanically rich bottomland forest to good advantage. Silky wildrye (overall dominant herbaceous species) and Virginia wildrye at peak standing crop beautifully represented the feed value of this forest range and the climax cool-season grasses that provided it. Sycamore (big trunk in center midground) and northern red oak (big dark trunk at left margin) along with western hackberry and both American and red elm (smaller boles: poles and saplings) were the tree species present in this stand. Leaves in left foreground were hackberry. It was obvious in this photograph that elms and hackberries were replacing sycamore which had very little regeneration, certainly nothing approaching that of hackberry and the two elm species of which American elm was the more abundant. More discussion on this dynamics was given later in this section. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

4. Composition and structure of an Ozarks bottomland forest- The beauty as well as the botanical makeup and internal architecture of a mixed hardwood floodplain Ozark forest in full array of "spring fashion". Peak standing crop for grasses, all of which were cool-season, festucoid species. Silky wildrye was the dominant with Virginia wildrye the associate. Canada or hairy wood brome was present as robust but widely scattered individuals. The second of these two photographs was a closer-in view of forest range vegetation presented in the first photograph. The smaller trees (pole-size) in foreground of both slides was hackberry which, along with American or white elm and red or slippery elm, made almost all of the young tree stock. (More on this development later in the show.) The largest tree (darker trunk at right midground of both slides) was northern red oak. The other two large trees (left midground) were sycamore. There was almost no reproduction of sycamore of northern red oak. Most abundant shrub in these views of the forest community was buckbrush (eg. large bush in foreground). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

5. Shadows and spring green-This "photo-plot" featured a young western hackberry (of smaller or younger adult age class) in front of an old sycamore symbolizing replacement of the latter by the former. This same trend was introduced in immediately precdeding slides. The successional relations between sycamore and western hackberry (also American and red elms) were described in the subsequent section that described this bottomland forest. The shrub in right corner was a handsome specimen of spicebush. The more common and lower-growing shrub was buckbrush. The dominant (present everywhere) was silky wildrye. Local patches of Virginia wildrye accompanied it fellow Elymus species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

6. Verdant spring attire- Another view of the species composition and and interior structure of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the floodplain of an Ozark stream. Between the regular channel (for normal stream flow) and the ovrflow channel of Modoc Creek a species-rich forest range had developed. This photograph provided a different vantage point of some of the same vernal aspect vegetation introduced above. Point of peak standing crop and soft to hard dough stage of grain in the cool-season festucoid grasses that made up most of the heerbaceous understorey in the vernal society of this layer. Silky wildrye was the dominant with Virginia wildrye the associate herbaceous species. There were a few robust plants of Canada or hairy woody brome. Largest tree (dark bark at right midground) was a northern red oak. The two other large trees (one in right midground; the other in right background) were sycamore.The four pole-size trees (including two in foreground) were hackberry. Virginia creeper was creeping up the trunk of the foremost hackberry. Shrubs were mostly buckbrush in this shot of the understorey. Spicebush was generally the dominant shrub, but it and buckbrush were in two distinct woody layers: low-shrub and mid-to tall-shrub). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

7. Sample of herbaceous sward- Vigerous specimen of silky wildrye The broad-leafed forb was pokeberry, pokeweed, or poke (Phytolaca americana). The trailing forb in foreground was cleavers or bedstraw (Gallium aparine), a minor (incidental) species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. On the floodplain of Modoc Creek.

8. A pleasant and all-too-infrequent encounter- "Hale and hearty" individual of Canada or hairy wood brome (Bromus purgans= B. pubescens) growing near base of an equally hearty northern red oak. This decreaser grass is an indicator species. Its presence on this flood plain forest range indicated that any past overgrazing had been long enough ago so that this abuse-sensitive grass had recovered to the point of having some healthy individuals to show off to those appreciative of the finner things in life. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. On the floodplain of Modoc Creek.

9. A closer encounter- Panicle and spikelets of Canada or hairy wood brome of the plant shown in the preceding photograph. This is a climax grass of Ozark Plateau which has sadly become all too uncommon on forest ranges subjected to overgrazing by cattle (and in earlier years by hogs and horses). Pubescence on bracts of spikelets is a typical identification feature of this species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. On the floodplain of Modoc Creek.

10. Morning light on spring green- Two-slide sequence showing a panaramic (panned) view and a more species-specific (zoomed) view of the range plant community of a bottomland forest that had developed on the foodplain of a stream (Modoc Creek) in the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Plateaus physiographic province. The biggest (and rightward leaning) tree was an old-growth (and hollow) sycamore. The large tree with fine straight bole in right bacckground of first photograph and to right of leaning sycamore (but mostly concealed by leaves) in second photograph was a northern red oak (also an old-growth specimen). Other trees included more sycamore (too distant to be seen distinctly), black walnut (shown specifically in another photograph below), and chinquapin oak (right margin of the first of these two slides). Most of the smaller, younger trees (mostly sapling to pole age/size classes) were western hackberrn and American elm which were succeeding the pioneer and persistent sycamore, northern red oak, black walnut, and chinquapin oak. (This phenomenon was described in later parts of this section devoted to Ozark floodplain forests.) Good examples of an American elm were the three foremost saplings in first of these two slides and in left foreground in the second photograph. Most of the pole-size tree in both slides were hackberry. The foremost tree at left margin was a mid-size white ash which, along with hackberry, American and red elms, and pignut or bitternut hickory were ascending to dominancy as this bottomland forest approached the climax stage of plant community development. summer grape (Vitis aestivalis) and fox or frost (V. vulpina= V. cordifolia) grew up into crowns of all the old-growth trees. Virginia creeper was even more common. American elm sapling in foreground. The dominant shrub was spicebush with pawpaw surpassing buckbrush as the associate species in this closer to Modoc Creek. American bladdernut became a major shrub down closer to this stream. In the herbaceous zone shown in both of these "photo-quadrants" silky and Virginia wildryes, the dominant and associate species, respectively, in most of the general herbaceous layer, were replaced in dominance in local habitats by wood nettle (Laportea canadensis). Slender nettle (Urtica gracilis= Urtica dioica ssp. gracilis ) was also present, but it did form exclusive, single-species colonies in the matter of wood neetle. In regard to species diversity, plant families represented, forest structure, plant growth form, plant age distribution, microsite stands (eg. wood nettle), and even local disturbance due to blowdown and breakage from recent ice storms (covered below) this forest range was almost unparalled even by standards of a bottomland forest. In spring verdure it was of unsurprassed beauty, raw and sheer grandure as a sad reminder of what forests of the Ozark Plateau once were. Of course no photograph could capture the rapture envoked by such beauty tempered with crawing ticks, webs of orb spiders in the face, and britches sopping-wet from dew. Some things simply have to be experienced personally and, better yet, when alone but for the presence of God. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11. Forest garden in the morning- Enough morning light penetrated the canopy of a floodplain forest along an Ozark Plateau stream (Modoc Creek) to provide more detail of species composition and structure of vegetational layers of this diverse stand that was introduced in the preceding two-slide set. This present photograph was taken from a different vantange point so that the large northern oak is no longer visible except in distant background (right margin). Tree regeneration was represented by the sapling age/size class. These trees were all western hackberry and American elm. There was no reproduction of sycamore in this "photo-transect". Sycamore (most in background) were all arge,mature (over-ripe) trees. Just beyond (to right) of this "photo-transect" larger trees were chinquapin oak and box elder with most regeneration that of white ash. Prominent shrub species in foreground (eg. left margin, foreground) was spicebush. Pawpaw was also present as was buckbrush though this latter at much less cover than in the forest stand growing on the abandoned overflow channel of Modoc Creek shown in first photographs of this section. The dominant herbaceous species in this slide was (as in portions of the understorey shown in preceding two photographs) wood neetle. Silky wildrye and Virginia wildrye (dominant and associate herbaceous species, respectively, in other parts of this understorey) were much less abundant closer to the regular-flow channel of Modoc Creek. Slender nettle was also present, but not as local patches like stinging neetle. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

12. A stinging selection- Grazing by white-tail deer on shoot apices of wood nettle (Laportea canadensis). This species grew in large local colonies in a floodplain forest of such species as sycamore, western hackberry, American elm, box elder, white ash, black walnut, northern red oak, chinquapin oak, and eastern cottonwood. This specific colony grew near base of a sycamore and northern red oak.

13. Dynamics of forest vegetation- The key features of plant community ecology tracing Frederic E. Clements, to the most prominent founder of the specialty, were: 1) the ever-changing, cyclical pattern of vegetation and 2) temporary stability (climax) before disturbance set the sere in chage again. This photograph was an example of Clementsian vegetational dynamics in the bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of Modoic Creek, a stream in the western edge of the Springfield Plateau of the Ozarks Plateau physiographic province. Western hackberry and American elm were replacing pioneer tree species like sycamore, black walnut, and eastern cottonwood that had persisted to a late seral stage (subclimax). This photograph featured a mature black walnut with an amazingly tall bole in its prime being replaced by American elm (pole-size trunk to immediate right of the black walnut) and hackberry (represented by large shade leaves at top and right margin of slide), the ultimate climax tree species of this forest sere. The black walnut was actually overripe and already too far gone for valuable lumber. It was mostly hollow and serving as a bee tree (used as a hive by natualized honeybees [Apis mellifera]; entrance, hole from a dead limb, was on backside of tree as presented here). This walnut had just begun to shed limbs from its crown as shown by two dead ones leaning against or toward the left side of its trunk. There were no seedlings of saplings of black walnut. This walnut had established on the sere at an early stage and persisted into the subclimax as an over-mature individual while those species that would be climax dominants established all around it. Black walnut has a tolerance rating of Intolerant as compared to that of Tolerant for box elder and Intermediate for hackberry and American elm (Wenger, 1984.ps. 2-3). The dominant shrub was spicebush with buckbrush as the associate shrub. Pawpaw was also present. (Actually each of three species dominated a tall, middle, and low shrub layer (pawpaw, spicebush, and buckbrush, respectively). A small sapling of box elder was present (right margin of slide). There were no herbaceous species in this local habitat, the shade being too dense for species like the wildryes and wood nettle. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

14. Bed on the bank: a forest forb and decreaser grass as indictor species- On part of a bank of an abandoned channel of Modoc Creek a "bed" (local stand) of southern or Virginia blue flag (Iris virginica) and silky wildrye had developed as part of the herbaceaous understorey of a bottomland forest composed of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, western hackberry, white ash, chinquapin oak, boxelder maple, northern red oak, black walnut, and American elm. This bank of the former overflow stream channel was made up of larger stones and gravel along with alluvial soil. The edaphic part of these species' habitat was fertile and well-drained. Duration of sunlight was limited to roughly half of the daily photoperiod only some of which received full-light intensity due to shade from nearby large trees. Iris virginica is extremely rare in this locale and its presence here attested to the virgin environment of this old-growth floodplain forest. Silky wildrye is a decreaser native grass. These two herbaceous species indicated the climax (or near climax) state of the forest range described here. On abandoned overflow channel of Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May.

15. A bottomland bouque (or everybody's blooming)- Close-in view of a local stand of Virginia or southern blue flag and silky wildrye, both species of which were in full-bloom, in a bottomland forest of sycamore, western hackberry, chinquapin oak, northern red oak, American elm, black walnut, white ash, and eastern cottonwood. This pretty "photo-quadrant" presented details of the local herbaceous plant community that was introduced in the preceding slide. On abandoned overflow channel of Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May. Phenological stages: peak-bloom for southern blue flag, soft-dough stage for silky wildrye.

16. Floral treasures in the forest- Details of southern or Virginia blue flag (Iris virginica) on part of the bank of an abandoned overflow channel of Modoc Creek, a stream in western edge of Springfield Plateau of Ozark Plateau Region. Silky wildrye accompanied the native iris. Was there ever a more beautiful bouque? Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May. Phenological stages: peak-bloom for southern blue flag, soft-dough stage for silky wildrye.

17. Maturing spikes- Spikes of silky wildrye (Elymus villosus) in bottomland forest on the floodplain of an Ozark Plateau stream (Modoc Creek). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July. Hard-dough phenological stage of silky wildrye.

18. Study of an understorey grass- Three-slide sequence showing sexual shoots of Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus) in forest understorey in western Ozark Plateau. Peak standing crop with grain in mid-dough phenological stage. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

19. Spikes in the shade- Examples of spikes of Virginia wildrye in understorey of western Ozark Plateau forest at mid-dopugh stage of phenology. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

20. Plant succession "ain't" always straight forward- The concept of tolerance is a cornerstone of forest succession. A discussion of this fundamental concept and the phenomena involved in it are beyond purview of this publication (at least at this juncture). A concise definition for this factor (or group of interacting afctors) in context of plant succession in forest vegetation seemed sufficient. "The capacity of trees to grow satisfactorily in the shade of, and in competition with other trees; if intolerant of shade, they are temred light demanders; if tolerant, shade bearers" (Helms, 1998). Tree and shrub species are rated as to their tolerance and givern rankings ranging from Very Tolerant to Intolerant (Wenger, 1984.ps. 2-4). Generally speaking woody plants that are Very Intolerant tend to be early seral or even pioneering species. Intolerant species that were major trees growing on the floodplain forest being considered here were eastern cottonwood, black walnut, hickories, black cherry, and sycamore. At the other end of the tolerance spectrum Very Tolerant species (sugar maple on bluffs along this floodplain forest) and Tolerant species (box elder in this bottomland forest) are generally dominants of climax forests. Tree and shrub species rated as Intermediate (eg. northern red oak, hackberry, American elm, and white ash on this bottomland forest) are also frequently climax dominants (or associate species to those with greater tolerance). Forest Ecology is, of course, not a precise science in the fashion of Physics. Hence, forest succession and silvicultural application--including grazing/browsing management--are not as simple as spaceship design. Things are "more messy" in the biological sciences and their applied fields. With regard to the phenomenon of tolerance some species have tolerance ratings that are inconsistent or unclear or, satted more clearly perhaps, dependant on local site conditions. Sycamore, some hickories like bitternut or pignut hickory, hackberry, and American elm fall into this "shade of grey" category (Wenger, 1984, ps. 3-4). These species were dominant trees on the bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of Modoc Creek used as an example of this forest range type. These two photographs (the second a zoomed-in view of the overall view in the first) showed a local floodplain forest stand in which plant succession seemed somewhat "confused". This forest range vegetation was a small grove of mature white ash with most revealing (and confusing) lower layers. Greater detail of the forest range of this ash grove was discussed in the photograph following this set. The first lesson of forest range vegetation presented here was in the first of these photographs. The sapling in foreground and the larger tree (pole-size) in right midground were slippery or red elm which had regenerated as part of the climax forest vegetation. There were also seedlings (not visible) of chinquapin oak in the herbaceous understorey which was dominated by silky wildrye almost exclusively in this floodplain forest except for patches of stinging nettle (shown above). Regeneration of chinquapin oak in this bottomland forest was consistent with existence of a sugar maple-chinquapin oak cover type and presence of chinquapin oak in bottomland forests where white ash is an associate species (Fralish and Franklin, 2002, p. 478-479). Burns and Honkala (1990) placed chinquapin oak in Intolerant rank, but they specified that young trees tolerated moderate shading (Intermediate tolerance rank) and became less shade-tolerant with advancing age. They concluded that chinquapin oak was a subclimax or even climax tree species on more mesic forest sites (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Red or slippery elm has generally been regarded as Tolerant so its general regeneration on this well-drained bottomland, including under cover of white ash, was consistent with silvics of this species. The second and major lesson of these two slides was presence of sycamore at small sapling size in the shade of a dominant tree of the climax forest. It was explained in the first paragraph of this caption that sycamore was ranked as an Intolerant species yet one of varying tolerance response and thus some uncertainity of tolerance rating. Sycamore is also a very long-lived tree (by longevity standards of species comprising flora of this region). Sycamore is one of the first tree species to invade habitats of severe disturbance such as stream scouring and cutting of new stream channels (ie. a pioneer species), but it subsequently persist to the stage of subclimax or even climax.forest. This silvic feature combined with rapid growth rate is why sycamore is the largest-diameter tree and one of the tallest-growing hardwood species in North America. Fralish and Franklin (2002, p. 483) published similar conclusions regarding sycamore. If this little sycamore sapling "played by rules" of plant succession it would not be here. But there it was: an Intolerant species had reproduced and was doing just fine beneath adults trees that were climax dominants of this forest cover type. Here was photographic evidence of the unclear tolerance ranking--and the successional status--of sycamore. The specifics of forest succession have yet to be determined conclusively. Perhaps they can never be because they do not aways "stick to the successional script". Plant succession may not always be direct and simple, but it is "cool". Sycamore remains a member--one of the biggest ones--of the climax bottomland forest. Floodplain of Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June

21. Climax pals- Silky wildrye, the overall dominant species of the herbaceous understorey, and white ash, one of the climax dominant trees, were the principal plants of a floodplain forest in the western Ozark Plateau (Springfield Plateau thereof). Sharing the "spotlight", that ever-shifting shaft of sunlight that was a (perhaps the) major abiotic factor in this forest, was Virginia creeper (climbing the left white ash trunk) and buckbrush (to immediate left of the left trunk). The most revealing "understudies" in this local lineup of species were seedlings of white ash and Americanaelm (foreground; in front of the left bole of white ash). Regeneration of these latter two tree species was evidence of their status as dominant trees of the climax bottomland forest. Continued presence of silky wiildrye inside the grove of white ash testified to role of this cool-season grass as the general dominant of the herbaceous understorey and main forage species in this forest. The principal forb was purple Joe Pye weed. All-in-all, a very revealing local "photo-quadrant". Floodplain of Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

This bottomland forest now being described had developed in the flood plain of Modoc Creek between the old creek channel and the current channel. Forest range vegetation varied with distance from current and former creek channels. The dynamic development of forest vegetation was of such time scale as to a study in "still life", but this ecological drama in the forest stage presented one undeniable successional fact:: The Old Order Passeth Away...

22. The billboard cast of a bottomland forest- General view of a subclimax bottomland forest dominated by the aged or senior actors of sycamore and eastern cottonwood with a supporting arboreal cast including hackberry or western hackberry, American elm, pignut or bitternut hickory, slippery or red elm, chinkapin (chinquapin) oak, black cherry, black walnut, box elder, red mulberry, northern red oak, and Shumard oak. The largest trees were individuals of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and chinquapin oak though some trees of northrn red oak, Shumard oak and box elder were almost as large. There were more species of trees than of shrubs and the more common herbaceous species. The most abundant tall shrub was pawpaw (Asimina triloba) which formed local groves or colonies from estensive rootstocks. Hazlenut (Corylus americana) was a taller shrub that was also present though at much lower cover and density. A lower shrub layer was dominated overall by spicebush (Lindera benzoin), but closer to the current creek channel American bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia) was dominant with dense colonies at local scale. Large woody vines of grape extended from ground to tops of canopies of the tallest trees. Grapes were of two species: summer grape (Vitis aestivalis) and fox or frost (V. vulpina= V. cordifolia). The upper herbaceous layer was dominated by colonies of Virginia wildrye and silkly wildrye (local consociations). These cool-season grasses had green--though small--basal shoots throughout autumn and winter and became dormant by late spring or early summer. Other major herbaceous species were tall nettle (Urtica dioica var. procera), slender nettle (U. gracilis= U. dioica . var. gracilis), and wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), both members of the nettle family (Urticaceae) followed by purple or green-stemed Joe Pye weed (Eupatorium purpureum) which grew in groups of widely speced individuals, and lopseed. These forbs persisted throughout the warm-growing season. Another common and colony-forming forb (though one having shorter growing season) was Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophylloum virginianum) and bigleaf waterleaf (H. canadense). Thes spring-blooming forbs dominated the lowest level of the herbaceous vegetation layer in this bottomland forest range. The species composition of this largely undisturbed (ie. direct human impact had been minimal to non-existent) bottomland forest was meaningful different from the currently most-apt descriptions of natural forest vegetation (Nelson, 1987 and Nelson, 2005 for mesic bottomland forest) that corresponded to the creek floodplain forest described here. Nelson (1987, p. 52) included western hackberry and bitternut hickory as dominant species and Shumard oak as a characteristic species. Nelson (2005, p. 148) omitted hackberry, but did list both American and slippery or red elm along with black walnut as dominant species. Neither Nelson (1987) nor Nelson (2005) listed chinquapin oak, box elder, or black cherry as even being present in mesic (or dry-mesic) bottomland forests in the Ozark Plateau or Ozark Border. Neither sugar maple nor white oak, dominant tree species according to Nelson (1987, 2005), were present in this creek bottom forest although sugar maple dominated an east-facing on the other side of Modoc Creek. Furthermore, both versions of Nelson (1987, 2005) listed numerous forbs as herbaceous species while largely ignoring grasses. On the forest range described here two species of wildrye overwhelming dominated much of the herbaceous layer of this forest. Also, Nelson (1987, 2005) did not list purple or green-stemed Joe Pye which was one of the dominant forbs of this bottomland forest. Virginia waterleaf was listed (Nelson, 1987, 2005), but this was a minor species--both spatially and temporally--compared to the wildryes, Joe Pye weed, and tall nettle. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). MesicBottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

Critical qualifying observation: the fungus (Ophiostoma novo-ulmi)-caused Dutch elm disease spread by Elm bark beetles (Hylurgopinus rufipes and Scolytus multistriatus) had catastrophic impacts on both American and slippery elms in the area of this climax hackberry-American elm bottomland forest. Elm phloem necrosis is another common disease of these two elm species in this same area. This disease is caused by a mycoplasma-like organism ( a kind of virus) for which the whitebanded elm leafhopper (Scaphoideus luteolus) is the vector. Both of these diseases commonly kill many elm trees throughout this region of the western portion of the eastern deciduous forest formation. In fact, it is often difficult for other than forest pathologists or other trained specialists to tell whether a given elm died of Dutch elm disease or elm phloem necrosis. For unknown reasons neither of these two widespread diseases that are common to the Ozark Highlands (and that have destroyed millions of elms) was not a factor--at least, not enough of a factor-- to eliminate American elm and or the less common slippery elm from the forest described below. This is not to say that either or both of these diseases were absent, but only that they did not prevent American elm from becoming the co-dominant of this climax forested range plant community.

23. The stage and introduction of the principal actors- An old (apparently the prior) channel--bed and banks--of Modoc Creek was evident on this bottomland (floodplain of Modoc Creek) forest range. Growing along the banks of the earlier channel were immense individuals of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, northern red oak, and Shummard oak. At greater distance from the old channel banks (as well as from current channel) there were chinquapin oak, box elder, and some(fewer) white ash (Fraxinus americana). Hackberry (also designated as western hackberry; Celtis occidentalis) and American elm plus some box elder and bitternut hickory were the primary species of younger trees (including those with on-going regeneration). These were growing by the old (prior or former) stream banks and outward from them (= landward from stream) as well as in between both old and current stream channels. Red mulberry was present as a smaller tree in the taller shrub/sapling layer along with American bladdernut and American hazelnut. Sycamore and eastern cottonwood (typically pioneer species or colonizers) unquestionably had the oldest (and largest) trees, but it would be erroneous to equate all differences in size to differences in age as this would ignore different rates of growth (or, same thing, assume equal growth rates) among tree species. Obviously such was (is) not the case. For example, eastern cottonwood is one of the fastest-growing hardwood species in North America (Burns and Honkala, 1990, p. 530). Regardless, it was self-evident that sycamore and eastern cottonwood had become established on bare gravel or soil on banks of the old channel and subsequently persisted into the subclimax (or early climax) stage of this bottomland forest. Large specimens of the two grape species grew up to tops of tallest sycamores and cottonwoods. Notable by their absence in this plant community were other species of woody vines such as Virginia creeper, trumpet creeper, and (more-or-less) poison oak/ivy, There were some individuals of bullbriar or catbriar (Smilax bona-nox). Other shrubs included pawpaw (the dominant and colony forming, taller shrub), spicebush (overall major shrub) and American bladdernut, the two species that costituted a middle shrub layer, and buckbrush or coralberry which formed the sporadic or discontinuous lowest shrub layer. Throughout most of the growing portion of the year--both cool- and warm-seasons--there was a single herbaceous layer extending to a height of three to four feet. This was dominated during the cool-season portion of the growing season by local--typically separate--colonies of Virginia and silky wildryes. Elymus species were in dormancy during most of the warm- growing season (typically dormant by late spring or early summer). Dominants of the herbaceous layer during summer and sutumn were three forbs (all of which grew in colonies or local consociations): tall nettle, wood nettle, and green-stemed or purple Joe Pye weed. Virginia waterleaf and a few incidental forbs made up a lower herbaceous layer in late winter to mid-spring. Various species of fuungi and lichen grew on downed logs and limbs and on rotting leaves on the soil surface. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

24. Curtain rise as the cast rises from the old channel- Vertical view down a former channel of Modoc Creek along which pioneer sycamore and eastern cottonwood persisted into the late subclimax or early climax stage of vegetation that developed into ths moist bottomland forest. At some later stage(s) following the pioneer plant community northern red oak and Shummard oak became established along the sere of this forest vegetation. These trees also persisted into the current subclimax or climax range plant community. Large woody shoots of summer grape and fox or frost grape extended into the crowns of these trees, especially sycamore and eastern cottonwood. The two smaller (younger) foremost trees (left and right bank of previous creek channel) were hackberry. The tall shrub to right of the left bank hackberry was American bladdernut. Large tree in center midground was a dead sycamore. A pole-sized hackberry was growing to left of this sycamore. Large tree in background was eastern cottonwood. Shrubs in this view of the bottomland forest were spicebush and buckbrush or coralberry. Straw in the herbaceous layer of the understorey was of recently gone dormant Virginia and silky wildryes. Green leaves in the herbaceous layer were those of purple or green-stemed Joe Pye weed, tall nettle, and wood neetle. Some of the lower green leaves were those of seedlings and small saplings of western hackberry and American elm (the climax tree species with most sexual reproduction), bitternut hickory (a less abundant climax tree species), and, least of all, box elder. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

25. Oldsters along the old channel: the old order, and the new- A previous stream channel of Modoc Creek was still the home to pioneer sycamore and eastern cottonwood (large trees in background) as well as northern red oak (eg. second left-leaning tree trunk on right bank) and Shummard oak, but this old order was giving way in the progression of plant succession to hackberry and America elm (eg. the nice, big, foremost left-leaning tree trunk on right bank), and bitternut hickory. The left of center tree with gray bark in far foreground or near midground was chinquapin (chinkapin) oak. The successional status of chinquapin oak was unknown, but its presence suggested a status of subclimax to climax on this forest range site. Chinquapin oak was regarded as Intolerant and yet to be subclimax to climax on mesic, limestone-origin soils (Burns and Honkala, 1990, p. 699), en edaphic condition met on this site. Large woody vines of summer and fox grape traced across the old stream channel into crowns of the tallest trees. The straw was that of colonies of Virginia wildrye and silky wildrye that were dormant at this point in early summer. Most shrubs were spicebush, coralberry or buckbrush, and American bladdernut. No forbs were visible in this forest range scene. This bottomland hardwood forest range was in the western Ozark Highlands (Mountains), part of the Springfield Plateau, just a few miles from eastern edge of the Cherokee Prairie of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Species like eastern cottonwood, American elm, chinquapin oak, and the wildryes were botanical proof of the affinity of these two distinct yet contiguous floristic regions. The bottomland habitat on which this forest had developed was formed when the perennially flooding Modoc Creek underwent a large enough flood and other "just right" conditions to form another channel which left the former creek channel high and dry. At that time (when the new--the latest or more recent--channel of Modoc Creek was carved in its floodplain), the old channel became just a geologic reminder of the dyamic nature of streams. The former riparian habitat (a kind of wetland) along the banks of Modoc Creek was changed into a slightly elevated, mesic habitat that ultimately became nothing but a rise with a "haired-over" (vegetated), meandering, dry ditch down the middle. The pioneering sycamore and eastern cottonwood and the somewhat later invading oaks (northern red, Shummard, chinquapin) continued to grow on banks and bed of the previous channel of Modoc Creek. But the growing and, eventually, large trees of these early seral species did reproduce (sexually or asexually). They did not replace their own kind in the shade they cast (ie. they did not replace themselves in the habitat they modified). The individual plants of these species had modified their environment (affected soil, air currents in the forest, God only knows what else) so that the changed habitat was "improved" (made more amenagle) for the next stage on this sere which, in this case, was the climax. This was the phenomenon of reaction in the Clementsian model of plant succession or what was later labeled the facilitation model by (Connell and Slatyer, 1977). The other relevant phenomenon of the Clementsian paradigm was competition. The pioneering and persistent (through longevity) sycamores and cottonwoods--large though they were and commanding the canopy as they did-- still, and simply put, could not compete effectively with western hackberry, American elm, bitternut hickory, box elder or, even, black cherry. The latter were the new--and presumedly final order--on the sere of this floodplain forest range. The former (subclimax) dominants were the old order that, having had their successional moment in the sun, surrendered the "ground" they had modified (reaction in action) to the final cast of characters at termination of this sylvan play. These as-the-curtain-falls actors were the dominants of the potential natural vegetation, the climax forest that bore their names as that of the forest cover type. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

26. Views down the channel: "The Times They Are A'changin'"- The title line from the old protest song of Bob Dylan (1964) summed up the dynamics of this forest range vegetation. These two photographs provided a farther and a closer view of species composition and structure of a mesic bottomland forest in the western portion of the Ozark Highlands by focusing on the forest community that had developed on the old (previous) channel of Modoc Creek. Both the long and short focal perspectives provided a classic example of change in forest plant species with progression of plant succession. This was an example of the Clementsian model of dynamic vegetation. The largest tree (right center midground) was an old-growth specimen of northern red oak. The large tree to right of this northern red oak, the upper trunk of which leaned right, was an old-growth Shummard oak. Incidentially both of these oak species are generic red oaks (Erythrobalanus subgenus of Quercus). The two trunks opposite of the old-growth northern red oak (left side of creek channel) were sycamore. So much for the pioneer sycamore and later seral red oaks, these stalwarts of the old order. The new order--the forest climax--which, in the grand scheme of forest development (plant succession; the dynamics of vegetation) was ousting the Old Arboreal Guard, was that of western hackberry (the major climax dominant), American elm, and bitternut hickory. Box elder and, to less extent, black cherry were also well-represented by younger trees of large pole-size but, like chinquapin oak in the preceding photograph, the successional status of these two species was unknown, although they appeared to be subclimax or climax. Black cherry was classed as Intolerant (Wenger, 1990, p. 3), yet it "grows very fast" (Burns and Honkala, 1990, p. 599). Perhaps rapid growth was an adaptation that enabled black cherry to survive in this bottomland forest. Furthrmore, in this author's observation, black cherry propagates readily in the understorey of oak-hickory and bottomland forests in the western Ozark Plateau and, as was shown below in the Use and Abuse portion of this chapter below, factors such as fire and browsing prevented greater density and cover of black cherry in these forest ranges. A tolerance rating of Intolerant did not seem appropriate for black cherry on these Ozark forest types (including this largely undisturbed, creek bottom forest). In the first of these two photographs there were two western hackberry trees growing in fromt of the sycamores (left midground) while a straight-trunked black cherry grew in right foreground. In the second (closer-in or short view) photograph only one of the two foremost hackberry trees was visible. In both photographs the hackberry growing to left and slightly behind the old-growth northern red oak was visible. Hackberry was clearly in the successional ascendency. Most shrubs in these photographs were spicebush (eg. center shrub--and in center of old creek channel--in second of these photographs) with buckbrush or coralberry being the second most abundant in these views of this forest vegatation (eg. foreground of first slide by black cherry). The straw was that of recently gone-dormant Virginia and silky wildryes. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

27. The action scene: changing of the guard- In a bottomland (floodplain) forest along a stream (Modoc Creek) in the Ozark Highlands sycamore and eastern cottonwood had pioneered this former creek channel (now esentially the first stream terrace) and were being replaced by the climax dominants which were hackberry, American elm, and bitternut hickory (often a north-slope dominant with sugar maple). Box elder and chinquapin oak appeared to be other climax (at least, subclimax) tree species on this site along with climax spicebush, American bladdernut, pawpaw, Virginia and silky wildryes, purple Joe Pye weed, tall nettle, and wood nettle. Successional status of black cherry on this creek bottom forest site was not known. On drier upland habitats buckbrush or coralberry was locally common. On moister drainages into the current stream channel American bladdernut was a local dominant shrub. Two photographs presented a long view (first slide) and a shorter or closer view (second slide) of this floodplain forest vegetation. In the center foreground (both slides) was a pioneer (ultimately a large and very old) sycamore that had died two years prior to time of photographs (a two-year old snag). The two-year sycamore snag died without replacement progeny was being replaced instead by: western hackberry (young sapling immediately to right of the bark-exfoliating snag; also, tree at right margin of foreground in the first slide only), bitternut hickory (tree immediately to left of snag; also leaves of sapling in left corner foreground), and American elm (tree to left of the bitternut hickory that was immediately to left of snag) along with fewer and more scattered box elder. The shrub in front of and slightly to left side of sycamore snag was spicebush, the dominant shrub in this creek bottom forest. Behind the sycamore snag with its flaking bark and the young hackberry growing immediately to right of the dead sycamore (center background of both slides) was a pioneer tree of eastern cottonwood. Straw in foreground extending back to midground consisted of colonies of Virginia and silky wildryes, the former somewhat more abundant. Long-lived sycamore and eastern cottonwood persisted into the subclimax or early climax forest much Douglas-fir foes on certain forest cover types. Sycamore and cottonwood were not regenerating on this bottomland site. Tolerance ratings of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, American elm, and box elder by the Society of American Foresters (Wenger, 1984, ps.2-3) were Intermediate, Very Intolerant, Intermediate, and Tolerant, respectively though with some uncertainty for sycamore and American elm. Like the preceding slides this was a two-photograph sequence that provided both a long and short view of mesic bottomland forest range with an emphasis on dynamics of vegetation with the progression of forest development (ie. community and species changes with progression of plant succession). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

28. Close in scene of the leading characters-Third photograph in a series with the same point of focus to provide consecutively greater detail on the featured plant, a two-year-dead sycamore. "Old as a big tree' (or "as big as an old tree") was not old (or big) enough enough to save this old sycamore from the ultimate end of all things mortal or, more meaningful from the perspective of vegetation, from the inevitable changes as a sere progresses through plant succession to the climax, the final or terminal plant community for that forest or range site. This large sycamore, which was introduced in the immediately preceding two-slide set, had pioneered the fresh, denuded sere on the bank of a new-cut channel of Modoc Creek decades, a century, (or however long) ago. Since the creation of that channel, Modoc Creek flooded again and formed another channel resulting in abandonment and isolation of the previous stream channel. The by-now established sycamore and eastern cottonwoods (probably along with northern red, Shumards, and some chinquapin oaks) continued to grow on the land of the old channel which remained as a terrace of the Modoc Creek floodplain. As geomorphic and successional time passed the pioneering sycamore and eastern cottonwood and the somewhat-later invading oaks (northern red, Shummard, chinquapin) continued to grow on banks and bed of the previous channel.The growing and, eventually large, trees of these early seral species did not reproduce (sexually or asexually), at least not at rates sufficient to be competitive with more reproductively effective tree species. The pioneering and seral tree species did not replace their own kind in the shade they cast. Instead these trees modified their habitat so that other (later-appearing) species of trees out-reproduced the early colonizing and other seral tree species. Older and bigger individual sycamores, eastern cottonwoods, and red oaks persisted in the forest, but they did not replace themselves in the habitat they modified. At least, they did not replace their own species as prolifically as did the tree species that were newer to the sere. The successionally more advanced species produced more progeny than the earlier seral species Successionally advanced species were more competitive because they produced (and continued to produce) more offspring so that as old trees of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, northern red oak, and Shumard oak died the remaining members of their respective species made up ever-smaller proportions of the forest vegetation, especially in the light-controlling canopy. With these disproportionate rates of regeneration over a long enough span of time hackberry, American elm, bitternut hickory, and box elder eventually replaced (or largely so) sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and the red oaks. This on-going struggle for control of the bottomland Ozark forest--and for survival of species on the sere of this floodplain forest site--was poignantly visible in this third photograph that featured the sycamore snag and successor species. In addition to the previously shown hackberry sapling (immediate right of snag), bitternut hickory (left of snag), and American elm (left of bitternut hickory) there were more western hackberry (two at far left midground and more behind and to right of them) and bitternut hickory (eg. left leaning tree behind and to left of sycamore snag). Several of the trees farther back were box elder. Again, shrub in front and slightly to left of snag was spicebush, the dominant shrub species. Also shown again was one of the pioneering eastern cottonwoods (right background). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

29. A view from the opposite side of the stage: enter the new order- The featured two-year-old sycamore snag, the "landmark" of this series, was shown from the other end of the former channel of Modoc Creek to present other species in "successional ascendency" on this sere of an Ozark Plateau bottomland forest. Besides the previously referenced sapling of western hackberry (left front of snag) and faded straw of Virginia and silky wildrye, this view featured a box elder (crooked trunk in left foreground), a Tolerant species that was ascending into the climax forest vegetation. Readily visible leaves of hackberry (upper left) and bitternut hickory (blurred; upper center) along with flaking bark on the sycamore snag emphasized the Clementsian dynamics of this forest vegetation. Forbs in left midground (to left of snag) were a colony of purple or green-stemed Joe Pye weed. This was an opportune place to re-emphasize that this was--based on local folk knowledge and biological-physical evidence (eg. absence of stumps and slash)--a humanly undisturbed forest. It was an out-of-the-way, isolated tract of forest protected by its owner and a limestone bluff. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

30. Easier to see the story- Absence of leaves on trees and shrubs in winter vegetation made it easier to "read ecology" of the western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder bottomland forest described above. The previous (old) channel of Modoc Creek was shown to good advantage revealing development of a floodplain hardwood forest. Sycamore like the large, old-growth individual in right foreground and eastern cottonwood, an example of which was the big tree in center background, had pioneered banks and bed of the previous and channel of Modoc Creek after this Ozark Plateau stream flooded and cut a new channel in the distant past. This geologic event left the now-abandoned channel to undergo primary plant succession beginning with colonization that included sycamore and eastern cottonwood. The individuals of these species along with some boxelder, which pioneered the raw site (along with typical annual forbs and grasses), persisted into the climax bottomland forest that at termination of plant succession was dominated by western hackberry, American and red (slippery) elm, bitternut hickory, and black cherry. Old individuals of chinquapin and Shummard oaks were also present (persisted) to the climax stage. Chinquapin oak was represented in this photograph by the tree with firescar on left bank of old channel in midground while two boxelders were in background immediately in front the old-growth cottonwood. These trees and this immediate area were presented in the immediately succeeding slide. Large lianas of grayback and fox grape graced the old channel. The dominant herbaceous species in the forest community presented in this photo-plot was silky wildrye. Also present in the herbaceous understorey as major forb species were Eurasian common chickweed (Stellaria media), the native chickweed (Cerastium brachhypodum), and false rue aneomone (Isopyrum biternatum). Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

31. The old channel in winter- Another photo-plot of the western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder bottomland forest described in preceding photographs. This forest community developed along the former channel of Modoc Creek after this stream cut a new channel. Featured here was the forest range vegetation shown in the midground of the preceding photograph. Largest tree in background with forked trunk was an old-growth eastern cottonwood that pioneered the former stream channel. The tree in left foreground with basal firescar was a chiquapin oak. The two trunks in front and slightly to left of cottonwood were boxelders. Large grape vines drapped down into the abandoned channel bed. Understorey was not prominent here, but was well-developed elsewhere in this forest. Details of understorey were presented below. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

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32. Speaking of winter, real winter- Relatively rare winter snow scene of the the old (a previous) channel of Modoc Creek and climax (perhaps late subclimax but approaching old-growth status) bottomland forest that developed along the eventually by-passed stream. This was the western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder-chinquapin oak-northern red oak floodplain forest introduced and described in detail above. This and the next three photograph-caption sets presented the same forest range community with snowfall of four or five inches. Pioneer trees of sycamore (eg. two large trees with conspicuous characteristic bark left-center midground) and of eastern cottonwood (barely visible large trees in background) were being replaced by hackberry (eg. two mid-size trees in front and slightly to left of the two big sycamore in both photographs, two small pole-sized trunks in center foreground of first photograph, and foremost trunk at far-right foreground of second photograph). To confound the apparent pattern of plant succession and interpretation of successional state of this forest there were mature northern red oak (eg. third tree back on channel bank base in first slide and (same tree) second tree back on right of second slide) which is regarded as a climax species for this forest site. Black walnut (eg. the right-leaning trunk of mature tree in right foreground and large tree in right background of first slide) like sycamore is ranked as Intolerant with regard to shade and competition tolerance (Wenger, 1984). Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

33. Ozark equivalent of Currier and Ives- The well-know printmaking firm of Currier and Ives reproduced numerous winter scenes that depicted Nineteenth Century Americana. These two photographs of the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau with a climax (at least subclimax to approaching climax stage) bottomland hardwood forest under a blanket of snow was from this observers perspective a scene worthy of reproduction by the likes of Currier and Ives. This real-life hillbilly Christmas card featured a old-growth (and hollow) sycamore leaning over a shallow drainage into Modoc Creek which slowly ran at the base of bluffs so characteristic of the ancient Ozark Mountains. The second largest tree (readily seen in right midground with its buttress roots) was a fine specimen of an adult northern red oak. The tree at right margin of the first slide was a boxelder. Sapling to immediate left of this boxelderas was an American elm and the pole-size tree to left of elm sapling (second tree to left of boxelder) was a white ash. This white ash was shown in foreground of second photograph. The smaller tree to left and front of leaning sycamore (in both slides) was another Amereican elm as was the tall tree with left-leaning upper bole in the first slide. The sapling with retained leaves to left of this was a sugar maple. Most trees behind the sycamore but to front of bluffs were hackberry, including the tall tree immediately behind the sycamore. There was no regeneration of sycamore within the frame of this photograph. Hackberry and American elm were clearly in successional ascendency on this sere on which they are the climax tree species. There was regeneration of boxelder. Main shrub was spicebush in foreground and pawpaw in background (by creek channel). Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

34. Well-anchored- Base of trunk with buttress roots of the adult northern red oak introduced in the preceding two slides. Even with only one or two snows of this four to five inch depth per winter (and sometime several years in a row without any snow) this ole denizen of the creek bottom had seen its share of the white stuff. Saplings beside this patriarch were American elm Northern red oak is generally regarded as Intermediate in tolerance (Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990). This one in its "natural prime) had no visible progeny. Instead all the saplings surrounding this might trunk were hadkberry except for one American elm. It was obvious what the climax dominant and associate tree species of this Ozark bottom were. Spicebush was the main shrub. Several leaders of spicebush were conspicuous in front of the northern red oak. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.

35. The holding on and the coming on- An old boxelder with the fire-scarred shoot of its "sidekick" grape (either Vitis cinerea or V. vulpina) were featured as old-timers that were holding on as members of a climax hardwood forest developed on the bottomland of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Plateau. The trunk along the margin of the first slide was chinquapin oak that was also an "oldster" in this relict tract of floodplain forest range. Chinquapin oak is classified as Intolerant of shade with less tolerance with advancing age (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Nonetheless, chinkapin oak was interpreted by Burns and Honkala (1990) as a climax or subclimax species on mesic sites, especially forest habitats with limestone-derived soils (such as those of the Ozark Plateau). On these more mesic environments chinkapin is a subclimax to climax species that persist into the climax forest. That was clearly the case presented here. Boxelder has an interesting and not exactly straightforward response to shade and competition in forests. Where boxelder is a major species along the larger rivers it "usually follows the pioneer species of cottonwood and willow in colonizing new ground in alluvial bottoms" or it is even "a pioneer species in the invasion of old fields" (Burns and Honkala, 1990), but it has been interpreted as Tolerant (Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990) and is a component of botomland forests, including both the 93 Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash and 94 Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm, SAF cover types 93 and 94, respectively ((Eyre, 1980, p. 65; Burns and Honkala, 1990). Regardless of the successional status of boxelder it was pretty obvious what the dominant climax species was on the forest range site. Two small hackberry saplings in the first photograph and one of these in the second photograph showed the species that was coming on strong to be the climax dominant of this bottomland forest. There was, however, considerable regeneration of boxelder throughout this traact even though its reproduction was not represented in these two photographs. In this particular tract of bottomland hardwoods beaver browse to a considerable degree on the bark of boxelder as well as bark of American elm and northern red oak of all ages. Beaver restricted feeding on sycamore to saplings and small poles in this forest. Beaver fed only sparingly on hackberry, but they did readily consume it (see below). Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.

36. Those who hold the high ground- Every military man from ground-pounding grunts to strategy planning generals knows that sooner or later victory will go to those who hold the high ground with sky and outer space being the ultimate high ground. This aerial "photoplot" showed the high ground of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest for/on which the final state of forest development was a hackberry-American elm-bitternut hickory climax wtth white ash, boxelder, and northern red oak as associates and sycamore, chinquapin oak, and black walnut as long-lived pioneer species that persisted into climax. The leaves were those on the lower limbs of American elm (left) and hackberry (right), the overall climax co-dominants (at least the main dominants other than on local scale). American elm and hackberry were the two species that intercepted the greatest quantity of light thereby precluding most of that radiation from reaching the forest floor. Enough light reached the lower levels of this bottomland forest so that elm and hackberry seedlings, saplings, poles, etc. were able to survive to perpetuate these Very Tolerant species as dominants of the potential natural vegetation. Simply put, these two species controlled the light, created the shade, and yet could to reproduce their kinds as dominators of the climax forest. They captured and continued to hold the high ground. Successional victory was theirs. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11446 and 11447

"Once and future kings"- T. H. White (1958) wrote The Once and Future King , a romantic (and swashbuckling) novel based on the life and reign of King Arthur, as a descriptive preachment for his view of a utopian social order or society. In an adaptation of White's oft-applied title, the author of Range Types used the medaphor of kingship and successional soverignty (complete with battles royal, knightly competition, ecological intrigue, and ultimate demise followed by hierarchial succession) to show the dynamic nature of range vegetation and plant community development in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest. In the first of these two slides a seedling of boxelder and one of pignut hickory had emerged to the left and right, respectively, of a pole of American elm in the channel of a tributry of Modoc Crek in the western Springfield Plateau. Young plants of spicebush and bristly greenbriar (Smilax hispida) served as the court's shrub escorts for baby trees that might grow up to be king or queen of this floodplain forest. The second slide featured several seedlings of pignut hickory, a Tolerant climax dominant of this forest cover type, as well as sedlings of boxelder, a mesic habitat-requiring species that functions variously as colonizer up to germinating species in the climax forest. Boxelder is generally ranked as "tolerant of shade, although less so than the other soft maples" (Burns and Honkala, 1990), as asssessment with which Wenger (1984. p. 3) concurred. Harlow et al. (1979, p. 412) explained that the fast-growing boxelder was likely the best adapted maple for persistence in harsher habitats though it was generally a short-lived tree. There were also seedlings and somewhat older plants of spicebush, the dominant shrub throughout most of this forest range, present in this second "photoplot" along with well-established Davis caric sedge. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

37. Future leaders- Floor of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest with lowest woody layer of the future forest. Seedlings of subclimax to climax associate woody species left to right were: two northern red oak, approximately five boxelder (center to right), and some spicebush (lower right). A male ebony jewelwing damselfly (Calopteryx maculata) was perched on (upper right corner) (More on these flashy critters below.) Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

38. Reading the bottom of the woods- At the base of an old-growth northern red oak on a major tributary and alternate (branch) channel of an Ozark stream (Modoc Creek) there was a representative sample of the lowest woody and the herbaceous layers of the understorey of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest. Plant species in the first photograph included (left to right): box elder, trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), American or white elm. The second photograph was from a slightly different angle of the same northern red oak with plant species seen here including (left to right); spicebush, buckbrush (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), northern red oak seedling, box elder seedling, trumpet creeper, and false Solomon's seal or false spikenard (Smilacina racemosa). Attention was drawn to the small alternate spots of shade and sunlight. These spots and the pattern of sun and shade varied over a short period of time (that is, within a matter of minutes) when there were very light breezes. When there were strong, erratic winds shade and sunlight changed over a matter of seconds. This pattern of quickly fleeting spots of light is the sun fleck phenomenon with sun flecks being the relatively short-duration or flickering spots of sunlight that temporarily (often instaneously) get through the canopy to light the forest floor. Under these conditions patience is not a virtue. It is a photographic necessity. For plants it is a matter of life or death. The more tolerant species are those that can survive to reproduce in predominately shaded habitats, environments with: a) strongly filtered (= indirect) light and b) sun flecks. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

39. Nursery now; canopy in the future, maybe- Closer-in "photoplot" of seedlings of boxelder (left) and northern red oak (right) growing beneath an old-growth northern red oak in a tributary and alternate (flood) branch Modoc Creek, a stream in the western Ozark Plateau. Burns and Honkala (1990) described boxelder as tolerant in general competitive ability (ie. mostly in regard to shade tolerance) while northern red oak was regarded as "intermediate in shade tolerance" being superior to many other red oaks (Erythrobalanus subgenus) and less tolerant than many white oaks (Leucobalanus subgenus) such as white oak. Ultimate fate of these two babies was known by God and, perhaps, some humans who will be around to enjoy these as big trees--if they make it to that stage. There was considerable regeneration of boxelder (of all age/size classes) in this floodplain forest. As to the little red oak the next photograph provided a family portrait if that held any clues for the future forest. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

40. Three generations- Interior "slice" of the climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was the feature in this portion of the chapter. The old-growth northern red oak was the same tree whose lower trunk portion was featured above. The little seedling (an apparent offspring of the neighboring adult tree) was one shown variously in the three immediately preceding slides. New to this photographic representation was a an intermediate-sized northern red oak, the large sapling or small pole-size tree in left-center midground. This pole-size oak was growing on the mid-slope bank of a tributary or flood branch of Modoc Creek. This tree was likely another sexual offspring of the old-growth oak (although action by flood waters, wind, and ever-busy squirrels could have dispersed the acorn from which the pole-size oak germinated from several other trees). Regardless of parentage, there were three generations of northern red oak in this poorly lighted "phototransect" up through the strata of this dense forest. This photograph showed the maximum amount of light at this location in this forest (when orientation to sun allowed the most rays of light to penetrate the canopy) during late spring. Tolerance to the passage of time (ie. patience) is requisite for any forest photographer (this one waited over two hours for this best possible shot which, at best, was medicore), but tolerance to shade and related competition is a first requirement for survival (long-enough life for reproduction) among plant species in a closed-canopy, climax forest. The future of these three trees over time and with forest dynamics will depend on nearly countless combinations of variables. "Good Lord willing and the crick don't rise too high", this photographer will return with Nikon FM to leave a photographic record of developments in the vegetation of this forest range. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

41. Heirs to the throne and royal court- Two "photoquadrants" (from two slightly different camera locations and distances) around the trunk of aln old-growth sycamore in the floodplain of a stream typical of the western Ozark Plateau presented the composition, divrsity, and spatial pattern of the understorey of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest. The "focus" (no pun; well, OK it was) of these photographs was to show regeneration of plant species tolerant enough to persist in the dense shade of this vegetation and, ultimately, be most likely to "ascend the successional throne" to maintain this climax (barring disturbances, perturbations, whatever). A handsome plant of pokeberry or pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) in the center of both "photoplots" served as the central focus point. The low shrubs throughout and generally behind and to left of the pokeberry were spicebush and poison oak or poison ivy. In center immediate foreground (in front of Dashing Poke) were a number of seedlings of hackberry. At far lower-left corner in both photographs was boxelder. In lower right foreground was a nice seedling of northern red oak. In the first slide there was the edge of an adult hackberry trunk to the right of Nice Seedling. To the left of these folks in right midground was a larger seedling of pignut or bitternut hickory. There was also some Virginia wildrye and/or silky wildrye around the pignut hickory seedling. All of the species represented by these plants were either climax or perhaps (it was not known), in case of boxelder or northern red oak, subclimax. That is except for Dashing Poke which represented a pioneer or early colonizing species. Flood torrents down this channel infrequently produced local disturbances which were of benefit to pokeberry. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

42. Forest "children's church"- Churchmen and lumbermen know that the future of the congregation, the next crop, is the present cohort of young offspring. On the floor of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest were seedlings of climax and subclimax hardwood species as well as climax herbaceous species. Seedling of northern red oak (top, closest to rotting log), american or white elm (largest seedling, center), box elder (mixed in), hackberry (littlest seedlings, mostly center and lower right). Grass was mostly Virginia wildrye or silky wildrye (one or the other as both were present on this forest range). The grasslike plant was Davis' caric sedge (Carex davisii) The monocotyledonous forb was false Solonom's seal; the dicotyledonous forb was smooth yellow violet (Viola pensylvania). Students should appreciate the botanical diversity seen in this and the preceding slides. Represented in these photographs were the five general groups of range plants: 1) grasses, 2) grasslike plants, 3) forbs, 4) shrubs, and 5) trees. Even the forb category included both monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Photographic note: The flare in extreme upper left corner by rtting log was result of bright shaft light in contrast to lower light intensity of the sunlite patch and with slow shutter speed (1/15th second). Accompanying ecological note: Even the dim light caught in this "photoplot" was an extremely fleeting phenomenon. The photographer arrived on this woodsy scene about 1430 hours in early June when he estimated that light could filter through small openings in the dense canopy of this vegetation. He was ahead by two hours and even with on-location patience there was less than a quarter hour when light was at its brightest as shown here. Climax species must be those of the highest tolerance ratings (say, Very Tolerant) or, alternatively, cool-season herbaceous species which complete most of their annual cycle when leaves of deciduous trees and shrubs are absent. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

43. Showy forest invertebrates- Sequence of shots of ebony jewelwing damselfly (Calopteryx maculata) that lived in the climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed along Modoc Creek in the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Highlands. The first slide was of both male (bright metallic-blue on thorax and abdomen, foremost insect) and female (behind the male) damselflies. The second slide was of the male and the third and fourth photographs were of the female. Leaves in the first three slides were boxelder while those in the fourth slide were buckbrush. These individuals of this ancient species were extremely docile (fearless was more like). They permittted the photgrapher to take these slides at close distance with a macro lens, Nikon's Al Micro Nikkor f/2.8 manual focus (ie. at a 1;1 distance). Just so there remained no doubt, these photographs were not taken with a telephoto-lense. The author felt that this field note was worthy of note for two reasons: 1) it spoke of the fearlessness and nature of the insects and 2) it was another instance where God provided "quail and manner" from Heaven for the Range Types project. In this author's view no one could find, witness, record, and share the grandeur of the Creator's creation without finding some spirituality in such long-tern endeavor. Transcendentalists like John Muir and the "plainer, every day forms" of Christians like Gifford Pinchot left no doubt as to their personal experiences and views in this matter. Aside from Nature Worship, to which this photographer pleads a certain guilt, there seemed to be no way that science alone could explain all the treasures and most unlikely good fortune bestowed on this author while pursuing this most delightful portion of a career in Range Management. The damselflies afforded a diversionary way to offer a simple "thanks". And they are a range animal on an interesting range type.

44. Browsing in the bottomland forest (nobody said that replacing the old order would be easy)- A pole-size (roughly less than seven inches basal diameter) young hackberry (western hackberry) growing in the bed of the former channel of Modoc Creek was felled by bark-feeding beaver. The hackberry had resprouted from the stump. On this bottomland forest range site hackberry was (is) the climax co-dominant (with American elm) or, sometimes, tri-dominant with bitternut hickory and/or box elder. In this mesic bottomland forest hackberry is the foremost ("first among equals") dominant and defining species of the climax (potential natural) forest vegetation. Plant life in this "photo-plot" was a cornucopia of Ozark forest species including (besides sprouts of hackberry): poison ivy/oak, green-briar (catbriar or bullbriar), lopseed, pokeweed, silky wildrye, seedlings of chinquapin (chinkapin) oak, American bladdernut, and a caric sedge. Students can practice their botanizing skills by trying to identify these (probably other) species. In the old stream channel of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect).

45. Being dominant does not mean "being out of the woods"- In the bottomland forest described here a large pole- or small log-sized American elm had been girdled by beaver. Beaver had not completely girdled this elm and instead had left a sizable part of its bark intact (on other side of the trunk as presented here). Thus, there was still some hope for survival of this tree. Plus, it was still small (=young) enough that it probably had the capacity to sprout or sucker (produce shoots from portions of the shoot near ground or from the rootcrown, the latter of which seemed more likely given that beaver gnawed this tree to ground-level). There were other (smaller) neighboring saplings of both American elm and other species (most notably, hackberry) ready to grown--and possibly escape beaver-feeding--should this pathetically debarked individual cash in its chips (made by beaver of course). Authors 38 inch hickory walking stick showed height of bark-feeding by beaver. IMPORTANT POINT: This and the preceding photograph showed that beaver fed readily and extensively on hackberry (western hackberry) and American elm, the two major climax (= typically dominant) tree species of this Ozark Plateau bottomland forest. Interestingly, beaver like graziers such as cattle, buffalo, elk, and horses preferred the dominant climax plants. On this forest range, under browsing by beaver, hackberry and American elm were decreasers. By contrast, on upland, mesic-limestone forests (including one adjacent--contiguous with except for the channel of Modoc Creek--to this tract of bottomland forest) beaver did not select sugar maple and white ash which were the climax dominant and associate tree species, respectively. Instead, beaver browsed selectively on northern red oak in preference to sugar maple and white ash which stood trunk-by-trunk to northern red oak. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. February, 1990.

46. Now they've turned to woody vines- Browsing on fox grape (Vitis vulpina) by beaver in late autumn to early winter. The liana of a moderate-sized fox grape that was stripped of its bark and gnawed clear through into several sections by browsing beaver (first of these two slides) along the banks of Modoc Creek in the western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder-chinquapin oak-northern red oak floodplain forest introduced above. The second slide was a close-up view (from the opposite of liana) of the right-most section in the first photograph. Greening shoots of silky wildrye, the dominant herbaceous species of this forest range, were visible in left midground of first photograph. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January.

47. Can't keep a good grape down- First-season stump sprouts (basal shoots) from the fox grape gnawed off by beaver in the two preceding photographs. Size and extent of resprouting of fox grape (regrowth from basal buds) about three months into the first warm-growing season following complete topkilling by browsing beaver. Also in this "photoplot" were many seedling of western hackberry, the climax dominant species of this bottomland forest range. Virginia creeper and Davis caric sedge (Carex davisii) were also well-represented in this sample of vegetation on the forest floor. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July.

48. Winter vegetation- Range vegetation of a bottomland (floodplain) hardwood dominated by western hackberry, American (some slippery) elm, and bitternut hickory (with persistent sycamore and eastern cottonwood) in winter. Boxelder was also present as both large (presumedly pioneering individuals) and medium-size trees. The large woody vines (lianas) were summer and fox grape. Larger tree at extreme right margin and midground of first photograph and again in midground of second slide was western hackberry. Almost all trees in midground were hackberry. The tree with bent trunk (to right of the larger hackberry in midground) was boxelder. Most of the trees in background were sycamore (readily distinguished by upper gray bark) growing along bank of Modoc Creek, a typical Ozark Plateau stream. There were not oaks or cottonwood in this stand. Most of the shrubs were spicebush (Lindera bezoin), but some pawpaw (Asimina triloba) grew in shrub understorey closer to Modoc Creek. Both the shrub layers and herbaceous layers were described immediately below. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

49. Lower layers in winter- Shrub and herbaceous layers in a bottomland forest dominated by western hackberry, American (and some slippery) elm, and bitternut hickory (with persistent sycamore and eastern cottonwood) in winter. There were two pronounced shrub layers: 1) tall shrub dominated and made up mostly of pawpaw and 2) lower shrub dominated by spicebush with buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) as an associate of this layer. The conspicuous shrub in this slide was spicebush. The herbaceous zone also consisted of a upper or taller layer and a lower of shorter layer. The herbaceous zone in winter (hibernal aspect) was presented and described in the next series of two photographs. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January; hibernal aspect. Vegetational units cited in immediately preceding caption.

50. The lowest layers- Details of the herbaceous zone of a bottomland, hardwood forest described above. At stages of maturity of these herbaceous species and peak herbaceous standing crop there will be at least two layers: 1) low herbaceous layer made up of two Eurasian annual forbs common chickweed (Stellaria media) and dead nettle (Lamium purpureum), the native chickweed (Cerastium brachhypodum), both bigleaf waterleaf (Hydrophyllum canadense) and Virginia waterleaf (H. virginianum), and false rue anemone (Isopyrum biternatium) and 2) tall herbaceous layer comprised of Virginia and silky wildrye and, later in summer, forbs the major of which were sweet, purple, purple-jointed, or green-stemed Joe Pye weed (Eupatorium purpureum) along with wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), slender nettle (Urtica gracilis= Urtica dioica ssp. gracilis ), and tall nettle (U. procera= U. dioica var. or ssp. procera). Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January; hibernal aspect.

51. Use of the understorey dominant- A plant of silk wildrye, the dominant understorey herbaceous species in the bottomland forest in which hackberry and elm were replacing sycamore and cottonwood as dominant trees. This particular plant had been grazed (defoliation was evident in this photograph) by white-tailed deer, the only ungulate, on this winter range. Silky wildrye matures and goes dormant by mid to late June by which time the only remaining herbaceous species on this forest range were forbs including purple-jointed or green-stemed Joe Pye weed, wood nettle, and slender nettle. The herbaceous portion or component (layers) of the understorey of this bottomland forest clearly comprised winter and spring. Winter usage was more critical and valuable given general scarceness of native, cool-season herbs. Virginia wildrye was almost as abundant locally as silky wildrye, but this latter was slightly more plentiful. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January.

52. Winter forb in the woods- The dominant perennial forb in understorey of bottomland hardwood forest was false rue anemone (Isopyrum biternatium) of the Ranunculaceae (buttercup family). The plants in the first two of these three slides were were growing and blooming in January and were photographed at the same time the author recorded tree damage from a severe ice storm (presented immediately below). The plant in the third of these slides was growing in this same location in March. I. biternatium is of necessity an opportunistic bloomer. This cool-season forb has a life cycle pattern (adaptative "strategy") that permits it to survive and reproduce in what would otherwise be a deeply, densely shaded understorey from spring through autumn leaf-fall. Floodplain (terrace) of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Full-bloom phenological stage.

53. Browsed by ice- Defoliation is the generic term for removal of plant parts by such factors or agents as grazing/browsing animals (including insects), diseases, hail, frost and freezing temperatures, drought, wind (in a myriad of forms), and sheet ice and snow. Obviously hail, ice (such as from freezing rain and sleet), and snow are all forms of frozen precipitation. Whereas hail defoliates as it falls, ice and build-up of snow defoliates only after accumulations reach weights that plant parts can no longer support thereby resulting in breakage and separation (to one degree ir the other) of those parts from the remaining body of the plant. Ice, itself, can fall directly as frozen precipitation in form of sleet (rarely, grupel), freezing rain which is rain that freezes on contact, or rain that subsequently turns to ice at temperatures of freezing and subfreezing over periods of time. Damage (defoliation) from ice accumulations is both direct and indirect. The latter occurs when branches, limbs, or crowns of taller trees that were brought down directly by excessive weight in turn (secondarily) break off, crush, or uproot lower, smaller trees and shrubs when the heavier and larger tree material from above crashes down on "underlings". Likewise, there is both primary and secondary damage to trees and shrubs suffering direct and/or indirect defoliation. Primary damage occurs from loss of plant parts whereas secondary damage takes place in numerous ways including disease entry via wounds, general weakening from severe or excessive ice-prunning, and heat from any fires (such as those ignited by lightening from thunderstorms) which will burn much hotter due to greater fuel loads from downed timber. Damage done by severe and extreme ice storms can rival that from smaller tornados and hurricanes. Ice storms sometimes vastly exceed in area that of the largest twisters so that the scope of and total damage wrought by ice storms can exceed that of violent tornados. Such was the case of this storm (9 December, 2007) which cut a swath about three hundere miles long (west to east) and one hundred and fifty miles wide (south to north). These two photographs showed severe damage done by that storm in a bottomland (floodplain of Modoc Creek) hardwood forest that was pioneered by sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and boxelder and that was approaching climax state in which dominant trees were western hackberry, American (white) and slippery (red) elm, and bitternut (pignut) hickory. Most severely damaged was boxelder. Large limbs that broke under weight of ice typically split and down their center (pith and heartwood) so as to "peel" or "run" down the limb and even trunk for long distances thereby magnifying extent of tree injury. An example of that pattern of breakage was obvious in the large limb of boxelder seen in center midground of first slide and centr foreground of the second of these slides. Shumard and black oaks and eastern cottonwood suffered considerably less limb breakage. Tolerance to ice damage in eastern cottonwood seemed strange given its soft wood, but the author consistently observed this outcome in numerous forest and shade trees in this immediate area. In the example of severe ice damage presented in these two photographs a large limb (making up almost half the tree's crown) of a boxelder crashed and broke over (rather than completely off) a smaller American or white elm in the lower tree layer. The severed bole, a snag, of the American elm was shown only in the first photograph. Break-over of the American elm was presented at closer distance in the second of these photographs. The tree in right midground that was completely topped and the toppled portion in foreground was an American elm that had previously been burnt clear through by a surface fire (fire scar distinctly visible). Damage from this fire had not extended upward to height at which this "born-loser" elm broke off. The point on this American elm at which regrowth occurs will be interesting. From intercalary meristem at point of breakage or stump sprouting? (See later slides of plant and vegetation recovery below.) The two saplings in foreground were western hackberry readily identified by the distinctive corkly ribbed bark. On this bottomland hardwood forest western hackberry, American and slippery elm, and bitternut hickory were succeeding sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and boxelder as climax dominants. It seemed likely that damage from this ice storm would slow this successional development and perhaps create enough disturbance that pioneer and other seral tree species might have relatively more reproduction and reclaim more of their former crown cover. All-in-all another example of Frederick Clements "dynamic vegetation". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

Follow-up photographs (five and seven months following ice devestation) of forest vegetation on this exact spot were shown below).

54. Iced down- Large limbs brought down by ice accumulations (3/4th inch to slightly less than two inches) resulting from a mixture of rain, freezing rain, sleet, and light snow (in that order) from a late autumn (9 December, 2007) storm produced when warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico overrode the heavy, cold, dry air of a Norther (an Arctic polar front). When the wet Gulf air cooled enough at higher altitudes it released the water which it could not hold at colder temperatures. Then as this precipitation fell through the heavy, cold Arctic air it went through varying frozen states that fell and accumulated on objects such as trees (power lines, roofs of houses, etc.) the added weight of which broke and brought down numerous of these things. In the scene shown here damage to (defoliation of) sycamore, like the large limb at left, and boxelder, represented by big limb at right, was featured. Boxelder sustained disproportionately severe damage due to its soft, brittle wood. The standing trunk in right foreground was chinquapin oak, a species that withstood icing better than western hackberry, elms, and, of course, boxelder. The understorey of this bottonland forest was presented and described in detail in several preceding photographs-captions. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

55. By the sheer weght of it- Two western hackberry in a bottomland forest uprooted by weight of ice accumulation from a late autumn ice storm (9 December, 2007). A combination of heavy ice accompanied by high winds and saturated (or nearly saturated) soil, aided and abetted by falling limbs from neighboring trees resulted in partial uprooting and toppling of these two pole-size (DBH approximately 14 inches) hackberries. In this creek floodplain forest in the western Ozark H:ighlands hackberry, American and slippery elms, and bitternut hickory were replacing sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and Shumard oak that had pioneered the old channel of Modoc Creek and adjacent land when this mid-size creek changed course sommetime over a hundered years ago. Other hackberry had lost major limbs and even their entire crowns (see next slide). Sycamore, Shumard and chinquapin oaks, and black cherry were also similarly impacted while bitternut hickory (and sugar maple in a neighboring creek bank stand) were least affected. Boxelder with its extremely brittle wood suffered the most ice damage (see photographs and discussion of boxelder breakage below). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

Follow-up photographs (five and seven months following ice devestation) of forest vegetation on this exact spot were shown below).

56. Crowned- The upper trunk of a western hackberry was broken by ice accumulation from a late autumn (9 Decembr, 2007) storm of wind and mixed precipitation (that promptly froze and built-up on trees). In crashing, the crown of the hackberry broke and bent down a sapling of American elm (to left of hackberry) The most extensive damage was to boxelder, but sycamore, chinquapin oak, black cherry, and Shumard oak were all affected by the storm and suffered major loss of limbs and branches. Centermost tree in foreground was a hackberry that experienced only minor damage. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

57. No, not a tornado; ice- Ice can be as effective as a tornado, hurricane, or straightline wind blowdown through several manisfestations. This includes uprooting, complete toppling by breakage near ground level, removal of entire crown by breaking below lowermost limb, or extreme breakage of individual branches and limbs. An example of the latter was provided by this photograph. This stand was a dry bottomland forest of western hackberry, American and slippery elm, and boxelder with black walnut, chinquapin oak, and honey locust as minor but consistent tree species. The largest bole in this stand was hackberry (right foreground). Trees in left foreground were (left to right): hackberry, American elm (tree with upper forked trunk), and boxelder. The large, split limb in front of largest hackberry was from a boxelder immediately to right (out of photograph) of the hackbery. Damage done by same ice storm as in preceding slides (9 Decembr, 2007). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

58. Details of defoliation by ice- Limbs and even half-crowns downed by heavy accumulations of ice (3/4th inch to slightly less than two inches) from the most severe ice storm (9 December, 2007) in over a century (determined from records and reported by Empire District Electric Company, Jopoin,Missouri). Most of the debris on the forest floor shown here was boxelder, but American and red (slippery) elm, western hackberry, and honey locust contributed to the tangle of downed timber. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

59. Browsed by ice (recovery efforts; phase 1) Early stage of recovery of vegetation in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest becoming dominated by western hackberry and American and red elm that had been severely damaged by a late autumn (9 December, 2007) ice storm. It was only six to eight weeks into the warm-growing season (that length since the last killing frost) so that plant growth and sesonal development was still at early stages of phenology and recovery. Both the larger completely topped snag and the "broke down and pert-n'ar broke off" sapling were American elm. It was wondered above (first slides of ice storm devestation) if the nearly benearly broken off American elm would resprout at point of breakage or at base of trunk (stump sprouting). The answer was provided here: at point of break-over and also along the incompletely severed bole distant (upward) from point of breakage. In other words, all parts of this trunk were still alive at this point in time (both season and plant age). Spicebush was th e shrub species that was most abundant and benefitted greatest (at least initially) from the forest gaps created by ice defoliation. Pawpaw and buckbrush were also favored by ice-created forest openings. Grayback and fox grape had sprouted profusely following some ice damage and creation of the forest gap. Major herbaceous species were silky wildrye, pokeweed, and purple Jope Pye weed. The large, split limb in foreground of these three photogrphs (best seen in right center foreground of third photograph) was box elder. It had been a major part of the crown of the largest tree in right margin of the first two photographs. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

60. Browsed by ice (recovery efforts; phase 2)- Early versus mid-stage of recovery of vegetation in a forest gap created by severe ice storm (9 December, 2007) in a bottomland mixed hardwood forest that was developing toward a western hackberry-American and red elm-bitternut or pignut hickory climax. These first of these photographs was taken at same time as the three slides in the preceding set (six to eight weeks after last killing frost) whereas the second of these slides was taken sixteen to eighteen weeks into the warm-growing season (after last killing spring frost). Such paired temporal "photo-plots" showed extent and relative rate of revegetation in this forest. Hackberry (at several age/size classes) was the major tree species, hence the one to exploit to best early advantage increased quantities of light. American elm was the second most common tree, including the sheared off snag (far right) and the sapling with the broken-over-but-not-off trunk. The sapling had sprouted profusely right below the stress injury and also above and beyond this break (higher up on the shattered stem). The snag of the larger (pole-size) American elm had sprouted far below shear site close to base of the trunk. This larger American elm was "broke clean- off" by a falling limb of box elder. Part of the trunk of that box elder barely was shown in the first of these two photographs (upper right corner) but it was shown to good advantage the entire height of the second slide (right of American elm snag). Wood of box elder is extremely brittle and readily splits and "runs" for considerable length along cracks in its wood. Spicebush and fox grape were the major shrubs (those with most cover) in this forest gap. Silky wildrye (some Virginia wildrye), pokeberry, and purple Joe Pye weed were the major herbaceous species (in that approxomate order). Other forbs important elsewhere in this forest (eg. stinging nettle, slender nettle, and southern blue flag) were not present in this forest gap. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. may (vernal aspect) and July (estival aspect) for first and second slides, respectively. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

61. By the sheer weght of it (recovery efforts)- Early stage of recovery of vegetation in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest where two hackberry had been uprooted five months earlier (9 December, 2007) by a severe ice storm. Stage of plant development on this forest range as shown here was only six to eight weeks into the warm-growing season (following the last killing frost in late March or early April). Most of the remaining trees were hackberry (mature down to two-year-old seedlings) and American elm (two forememost saplings of two size classes). Major shrubs were spicebush and buckbrush with pawpaw forming an irregular mid-height shrub layer. The main herbaceous species was silky wildrye. The most common forb was pokeweed followed by purple Joe Pye weed. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

62. Letting the light in- Old-growth white ash surrounding on limbs and general debris tron from box elder, American elm, and sycamore by an ice storm during the preceding late autumn (9 December, 2007). The ash was unscathed and being one of the tallest trees with a large crown it did not get as buch benefit of additional light and growing space as did other plants, especially those in lower shrub and herbacaeous layers. Some of the shrubs to benefit first from this new spot of denudation 9a forest gap) were grayback and fox grape. In addition, silky wildrye (dominant herbaceous plant), Virginia wildrye (general associate herbaceous species) along with perennial forbs including pokeberry or pokeweed, purple Joe Pye weed, tall nettle, and wood nettle plus pioneer plants like giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) also benefited from this forest gap or patch. It would be revealed in time shich tree and shrub species regenerated in this disturbance patch with most success. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

63. Collapse of a patriarch created a gap- At edge of the bank of the former creek channel in an Ozark Highlands floodplain forest a large Shumard oak reached the end of its silvan rope. The base of this tree (immense by standards of the Ozarks and this species) had rotted away to "almost nothing" long before wind and gravity teamed up to bring it down. The tree species "standing to benefit" from this windfall of light included two sycamore (two largest trees), a sapling of American elm, hazelnut, and red mulberry. The "hollow heart" of this Shummard oak was similar to that of the large (and largely hollow) northern red oak killed by bark-feeding beaver that was described above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

64. Left a hole- Example of a forest gap created by death of an old-growth Shumaard oak along the bank of the abandoned (former) channel of a stream (Modoc Creek) in the western portion of the Ozark Highlands. With its unbelieveably rotten trunk (for a still-standing tree) this long-abiding master of the woods crashed to create an opening in the forest canopy and set the stage for the phenomenon of patch dynamics. The first of these wo slides of this forest gap provided an opportunity to present the exterion of the mesic bottomland forest in the Ozark Plateau just described. Other large trees whose crowns dominating the canopy were sycamore, eastern cottonwood, northern red oak, chinquapin oak and (though one less) Shumard oak. The second slide showed details of part of the immense crown of the Shumard oak along with plant species at the outer edge of this bottomland forest. The oak fell outward from the forest so that its "final resting place" was a field that had once been a prairie that was exterior to the floodplain forest that developed along Modoc Creek. This was part of the Prairie Peninsula. The major shrub in the vegetation shown here was American hazlenut. The major (and rather large) herbaceous species were two composites: cup-plant or cup rosin-weed (Silphium perfoliatum) and yellow crown-beard (Verbesina alternifolia). These were the main ecotonal species and the ones to benefit immediately from this ecological "windfall". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July (estival aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

65. Start of a forest (forest colonization)- A small old-field at edge of the botttomland hackberry-American elm-sycamore forest featured herein (and visible in background) midway through the second warm-growing season following abandonment from grain-farming. This was (had been) a little patch of a wheat field too small to pay for farming so tenant farmers just "let it go back". It was "go-back land" with a twist. Secondary plant succession followed the textbook sequence for such land in eastern North America (the vast region of the eastern deciduous forests) with hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguainalis), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), and horseweed or mare's tail (Conyza canadensis)--the usual dominant, r-selected, pioneer, weedy plant species--being everywhere. However, seedlings of sycamore and box elder were the most common plants from the criterior of relative foliar cover. Also, there was a lot of cover of two perennial herbaceous species, one a native grass and the other and introduced and now widely naturalized legume. These were purpletop (Tridens flavus) and sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza sericea= L. cuneata), respectively:. This small parcel of old-field showed that on this bottomland forest range sycamore and box elder were colonizing or pioneering species (along with the sterotypic annual weeds of abandoned farmland). This parcel of "go-back land" was contiguous with the former channel of Modoc Creek on which old-growth sycamore and eastern cottonwood still persisted from when they had pioneered that new bank at a time known only to God. This little, former, wheat field was the next stand of long-lived, persistent, and, ultimately, large trees which will eventually be replaced by western hackberry and American elm. The sycamores and box elders will--barring introduction of more diseases or a major disturbance like wind, fire, or ice--will persist as part (constituents) of the climax bottomland forest dominated by hackberry and American elm. It was noted above that for whatever reason American elm (along with some slippery elm) was not killed out by Dutch elm disease on this tract of forest. It was not determined definitively why there were no eastern cottonwood seedlings accompanying those of sycmore and box elder. Most of the old-growth cottonwoods in the immediate vicinity of this "go-back land" were male plants which would have resulted in reduced availability of cottonwood seed. This fact did not seem to be the sole cause for lack of eastern cottonwood in the pioneer stage of this forest range vegetation. Part of the greater floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, 1991.

Cut-and-Run Logging of a Mixed Hardwood Bottomland Forest

The following section presented a sad time in the life of the subclimax or nearing old-growth stage mixed hardwood forest on the floodplain of Modoc Creek. It recorded high-grade logging at its climatic worst (or at least the subclimax of such forest abuse). The honorable and generative profession of Forestry sought for decades to overcome the stigma of deforestation caused by the frontier form of timber extraction known variously as "cut-and git out", "cut-and-run", and "cutover logging" (after cut-over forest that were not effeciently or effectively reforested following harvest. Throughout the three-decade plus career of this professor author unfortunately some of the most effective (and often heart-breaking) examples of proper management (good stewardship) of natural resources have come from viscerally gripping inverse examples, cases of what, when, where, why, and how not to manage range, forest, soil, etc. resources. The Modoc Creek floodplain forest presented above (and now) provided such a poignant object lesson.

How not to do it- In August or September (probably August) 2010 amateurs with chainsaws high-graded part of the Modoc Creek forest plot that was at subclimax stage of the hackberry-elm-pignut hickory-sycamore-white ash cover type. This (former) relict forest of only three to four acres was an "amalgam" of three separate properties. Only one authorized timber sale. Wood-cutters (no way would they qualify for fellers) purposely stole two logs (a sycamore and a black walnut) off of the neighbors. This could not have been a mistake (even a careless one) because mostly unfenced properties were clearly marked by concrete fence posts on the land from which sale was authorized and by a railroad tie that was the corner post (and all that remained) of the property line fence where all three properties met. There was apparently only one (at most, two) chainsaw-users as verified by "signature" evidence of complete lack of undercuts on all except two stumps (ie. trees, boles, were flat-sawed). All except two stumps lacked stump stops (height of the hinge; difference between undercut and backcut). The only effective hinges were slight differences in chainsaw paths through tree boles. As a result all stumps (other than the two) had long strands (up to eight feet in height) of wood fibers pulled from the butt log (stump section of the trunk) thereby degrading value of the largest log (= most lumber). The buffoons who improperly felled the trees were clearly rank amateurs (ie. they were not fellers just duffuses who were handed chainsaws). In addition, they were thieves. Furthermore, they left some valuable lumber in the woods to rot, including a seven or eight foot section of clear, straight, mature black walnut that they had stolen from the neighbors. In addition (and perhaps most telling and important of all) was the "hatchet-happy" habit of needlessly felling young pole-size trees (ie. the next wood crop) including trees that were clearly not in any regards in the way of tree felling or skidding of logs to trucks). Finally, as if all this was not enough, chainsaw-using, "wood idiots" wasted effort and material to fell several patently obvious hollow trees (worthless for lumber). These were then left to rot or, worse yet, once the amateurs realized trees were hollow they withdrew saw blades leaving the trees standing as forest hazards. In fact, all of the sycamore logs were, to some degree or the other, hollow-except for the one stolen from the neighbors. Most of the sycamores were growing on and stabilizing the bank of Modoc Creek. Such logging of riparian trees is now banned on federal land other than to remove hazard trees in camping and picnic areas. In summary, a list of "sins" (and at least one crime, a criminal offense) committed in timber harvest of this forest included: 1) timber theft, 2) improper felling, 3) wood wastage, 4) needless destruction of future logs (via "hatchet-happy" sawing, wanton felling, and careless skidding), 5) removal of riparian trees). The old stand deserved better management, but maybe this sad case of failed stewardship can in some small way educate future foresters and rangemen (by inverse example) in the ways of wise use management. The "gospel" (certainly not the Gospel of Efficiency) lesson here is that forests are renewable natural resources. Even after such "mutilation" this forest can recover, even if this author will not live to see (the nature of Forestry). Ironically, felling of the young adult sycamore might have extended their lives through coppicing. Otherwise those genetic trees would have "stayed dead" after senescence at completion of their normal life cycle.Like the meanders of Modoc Creek such are the twists and turns of life.

66. After extraction- Scene of high-grade logging of a mixed hardwood floodplain forest in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This was the local community presented above with an old-growth sycamore (readily identified by its prominent lean) and an adult northern red oak still with solid lumber. That northern red oak and one chinquapin oak were the only trees worth felling for lumber in the roughly three acres on which logging took place. There was one sycamore with a solid trunk that was felled and it was stolen off of adjoining property (from a neighbor). All the other trees were either a) hollow (in the case of all lawfully harvested sycamores and other chinquapin oaks) or b) young pole-sized trees (mostly young hackberry, white ash, and box elder) that were the next tree crop and needlessly felled by a hatchet-happey woods idiot. Examples of the senseless, hatchet-happy felling of future timber included the two poles laying criss-cross over each other. The top pole was hackberry and the bottom pole was white ash. Both poles were over ten inches basal diameter. These young trees might coppice, but 20-25 years of growth for the next wood crop was foolishly and maliciously "laid low", and for nothing as they were not in the way of felling or skidding. Fortunately from the perspective of the next timber crop and watershed protection (and for whatever reasons) larger trees of northern oak, white ash, chinquapin oak, and box elder (standing trees to left and right of leaning sycamore) were not felled. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

67. Half-sawed, half-down , half-assed, half-hearted, and whole hazard- A dufus with a chainsaw and half a mind started to fell the old leaning sycamore shown in the immediately preceding slide (and several other slides above that). By the time the woods idiot got half-way through the trunk he figured out it was hollow. Then he pulled out the saw bar and left the already leaning tree as a hazard tree, a widow-maker waiting to happen. Most sycamores of this size and age are mostly hollow, a fact well-known to knowledgable timbermen (Steyermark, 1963, p. 790), and hence not worth felling effort for production of long lumber. It was obvious that this large trunk was hollow because there was there were two external cavities extending upward from protruding roots. One of these was visible at the left side of the trunk in the first photograph. Note in this alide also the "barking" (knocking off of bark) of the trunk when skidding logs. This still more r careless, needless damage because there was plenty of room to have moved logs without touching a single other tree or stump. That fact was glaringly obvious from the immediately preceding photograph. The close-grained wood of sycamore is hard to split and in former days was used for "short piece" purposes such as butcher blocks and buttons. Thus another common name was buttonwood (Kurz, 2003, p. 235). Today wooden butcher blocks are illegal in most states (too conducive to microbial populations such as Escherichia coli) and wooden buttons are largely a thing of the past. The most common use of timber in most of the Ozarks is for pallet material, and hollow logs are of limited use for pallets. This author wondered just how much stumpage this landowner got for largely destroying (for the next several decades) a scenic little tract of creek bottom for the purpose of getting (lawfully) two clear logs. As to the tree feller it was obvious that he had no respect for life of any form. Feel sorry for his wife and children (if any were unfortunate to have him). What you see no relationship between woods and family husbandry? So much the worse for your insight. Flesh or fiber stewardship is stewardship is stewardship. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

68. Proper selection, improper felling- Stump (42 inches across at widest point) of an adult northern red oak that was properly chosen for harvest (and that could have been felled and skidded without touching aany other tree) and improperly felled. Greenhorn lumberjacks (logging neophytes) will note that this tree was felled with what we locals call a "flat cut":No undercut was made (or at least only a small one of inadequate size at best). Instead a first flat cut and then the standard backcut was sawed leaving as evidence of this improper felling method no stump shot (difference in height between undercut and backcut). Fortunately from the standpoint of sawlog quality this tree was on nearly level ground and not leaning so that merely getting two saw cuts to meet was adequate for felling with a minimum damage to the but section of the log. Specifically, there was a minimum of pulled wood fiber at the hinge, the point where undercut and back meet forming the stump shot. (More on this feature in other slides below.) This was a good lumber tree and one properly selected for harvest. It would have grown somewhat larger before the heartwood started decaying and forming a hollow log, but the log was "ripe for harvest". There was a large population of beaver along this streatch of Modoc Creek and the bark of northern red oak is one of their favorite foods in this habitat. An example of beaver-kill of large northern red oak in this forest was presented in another chapter of Range Types (Southern and Central Forests-I). Other examples of beaver browsing on tree trunks was given above in this chapter. This particular tree was just far enough away from the streem that beaver had not fed on it. This may explain why this northern red oak survived as long as it did. Given this mess of a stump, annual growth rings could not be counted with complete accuracy, but the tree was about 80-85 plus years old. This tree was approaching log maturity. Maturity in this context refers to "the approximate age beyond which [tree] growth falls off or decay begins to increase at a rate likely to assume economic importance". Physiological maturity is that "period of advanced age in the cycle of a tree or stand when resistance to adverse influences is so low low that death or net losses in vloumne are likely to occcur within a cutting cycle" (Munns, 1950). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

69. Slash and waste- Relatively large limb of an 80 to 85 year-old northern red oak felled in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest in the Ozark Plateau. This limb was the first (lowermost) limb on the northern red oak featured in several slide-caption sets above and the stump of which was described in the preceding two slide-caption unit. This limb was over a foot in diameter at base and there was at least ten to twelve feet of log left with a diameter of sufficiently large to have yielded at least one 2X4 if not a 2X6. There was over six foot of clear limb log that would have handily turned out two 2X4s. This was lumber wastage to a sinful degree, or was it? These wood "leftovers" are slash, "branches, bark, tops, chunks, cull logs, uprooted stumps, and broken or uprooted trees left on the ground after logging" (Munns, 1950). As with most things in natural resources (and life in general), interpretation on wood left in the woods is subject to different articles of faith and value judgments. One view as seen from the ecosystem concept has it that this wood was not wasted at all because it would naturally serve as energy and nutrients for a food chain as well as a source of recycling minerals ultimately to decompose into organic matter and enrich the forest soil. The naturalist would come down on the same side as the ecosystem ecoolgist though with a simplistic "it's natural" justification. Apostles of the Gospel of Efficiency (including forest economists, and intensive-oriented silviculturalists) would see waste and inefficiency unless the slash was used as fuel wood. (The potential for fire wood is always a legitimate option whether or not it is exercised.) Watershed specialists would likely point out that such slash could reduce soil erosion during flooding and help to retain water on the floodplain longer thereby reducing flash flooding downstream, increasing soil water, and maintaining stream flow by subsurface lateral flow. Some of the larger slash could serve as germination material (eg. the large limb might function as a small "nurse log"). Slash is a form of carbon-sequestration and it continues to provide this benefit to some degree as long as some organic (carbon-containing) matter remains thereby mollifying adverse impacts of global climate change. In the spirit of a natural forest (whether viewed from plant community, ecosystem, or landscape perspectives) logging slash is no different than tree remains resulting from ice damage as occurred several years earlier in this same forest (see above), windthrow (= blowdown), or washout. Undeniably, devestation by chainsaw was the same general impact as tree destruction from ice, wind (eg. tornado), flood, beaver-kill, or insect-induced death (eg. the native red oak bore [Enaphalodes rufulus] that is widespread throughout the Ozark Plateau). Logically, however, one unequivocal fact remains: this wood was left from human harvest. With irrefutable logic it must be admitted that given the wood was harvested for human use it should have been used for that purpose as efficiently and completely as possible. This forest was used (pathetic as that usage was) for and as a wood crop. It was not a natural area in a National Park where even salvage logging is forbidden. Acts of God (Nature) did not leave the slash. Man did. There was not justifiable reason (excuse) for leaving the merchantable lumber of the red oak limb that was worth at least several 2X4s and 2X6s. (Even more egregious lumber waste was shown below.) Worse by far--and not open to interpretation--was needless and, unquestionably, wasteful felling of numerous pole-sized trees of hackberry, white ash, box elder, and American elm. For example, the pole-sized (six-inch basal diameter) hackberry laying over the red oak limb was a 15 year old tree of the next wood crop. It--like all such "young stuff"-- was needlessly cut by hatch-happy fellers. Wood from hackberry, elm, and soft maples like box elder is far from the best, but it would make decent pallet lumber which was all any of this wood was going to be used for anyway. Wood of hackberry, white ash, and chinquapin oak is certainly superior to that of sycamore for pallet purposes, and hackberry, elm, and ash do not have the degree of hollowness that sycamore has. This whole operation was conducted by a group of rank amatuers equipped with chainsaws that did not know the first thing about using them beyond starting them. Theu could not even execute a simple undercut. The most immediately cuppable entity was the sawmill owner-operator who should never have turned such novices loose in timber. It is a wonder there were not human bodies lying beside the senselessly felled poles and wasted logs. Herbaceous vegetation in this clearing was described below in this same "cut-and-run" logging section within the caption entitled "patch cut". Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

70. Logging along the creek- Stumps of sycamore and chinquapin oak on the outer bank of an Ozark stream following high-grade ("cut-and-run") logging at about its worst). The stump at left in first photograph was a sound chinquapin oak and one of only two sound saw logs legally taken in the entire logging operation. Two other logs fit for felling were stolen off neighboring property. Note that the sycamore was hollow (second of these two photographs). These trees were growing on the outer bank of Modoc Creek whereas sycamores on the opposite bank were growing on the immediate bank and even bars of the perimeter of the stream channel. These latter trees should not have been logged period and instead should have been protected as part of the riparian buffer zone or protective barrier. States in the Ozark Region such as Missouri and Oklahoma have no laws prohibiting logging and other stream channel-damaging activities so this high-grade logging was legal. It was also poor forest practice (mismanagement of the forest and associated stream corridor) from the obvious standpoint of stream stability, especially of banks and even peripheral portions of the stream bed. Some logs on the far side of the stream ha been drug through the creek across to the other side. Progressive states such as California have strict laws (and rather strictly enforced) forbidding such stream-damaging practices. (Even if states like Oklahoma and Missouri had such statues there would almost assuredly be no enforcement of them.) Viewers can readily see the damage done to Modoc Creek by the dragging of logs across the stream to this side (midground of both slides). Readers should also observe that this sycamore was felled improperly. No undercut was made. Undercut is the notch cut or sawed into the lower portion of the base log and face of the stump in order to direct or guide the falling tree. The undercut actually consist of two faces: 1) a diagonal, downward-directed cut of the log portion of the trunk and 2) a flat, horizontal or base cut on the stump part of the trunk. The notch or undercut should be roughly one-third of the way through the trunk with the diagonal face roughly equal to depth or diameter of the flat face. The other cut is the backcut which is opposite the undercut and done after the undercut has been completed. Another acceptable form of undercut is the Dutchman notch in which the flat surface is on the log rather than the stump. In making the standard undercut the diagonal or top face is cut first and the lower horizontal face is cut next. Then the horizontal (more-or-less) backcut is made. A narrow strip of uncut wood remains between undercut and backcut as the tree starts to fall. This uncut wood that breaks off leaving short splitters is the hinge. The difference in height between undercut and backcut (ie. height of hinge) is the stump shot. In the first photograph the chinquapin oak (left stump) was properly felled and has a short yet complete stump shot and very little pulled fibers at the hinge. The hollow sycamore by contrast had no stump shot or hinge. This was partly due to the hollow center of the trunk, but mostly because no undercut had been made (note absence of stump shot even solid perimeter of the stump).Instead of using undercut and backcut this sycamore (and almost every other tree felled in this traact) was "flat sawed" with two cuts made from opposite sides of the trunk at about the same height as evidenced by a short stump shot (the difference in height between the two opposing saw cuts). This imporper felling resulted in the tree trunk breaking and leaving wood fibers on the butt (stump) end of the first (largest) log. In tree felling the tree is supposed to fall as a result of cutting completely through the trunk except at the hinge (the narrow strip of uncut wood between undercut and backcut). In this instance there was no undercut (just an opposite cut) nor was there a complete through-cut (a near-meeting or uniting--except at the hinge--of two saw paths). The result was that when the tree fell without a complete through-cut it so that it broke off at the outer portion of the stump and log leaving part of the wood that should have been on the butt (stump) log on the stump. This reduced value of this largest sycamore log (which was so hollow that it was not worth the effort to begin with). What a bunch of morons. The guys trying to use these saws were rank amateurs or novices or, in woods parlance, "greenhorns". How they kept from sawing their legs off or landing trees on top of them was a matter of "dumb luck" or God's grace. Breakage at outer edge of stumps instead of hinges was a signature on almost all stumps left from this high-grading. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

71. The next crop and a little cover for a theft- Stump of a fairly young sycamore and neighboring large sapling or small pole of hackberry. The log of this tree stolen off of adjoining private property that was part of the tract of mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was high-grade logged. A railroad tie that had been a corner post of the prevously existing fence clearly showed this sycamore to be on the other side of the property line. Although the chainsaw-wielding retards that did this logging were so stupid and/or "green" (inexperienced) they could not even properly fell trees, it is highly unlikely that they did not realize they were on the neighbor's property. Given the fact that these "hatchet-happy" greenhorns felled young pole-sized trees of hackberry, white ash, American elm, and box elder all over this tract that were not even close to the skid trail or any felled tree, it was obvious that this hackberry was purposely left as some little cover over the stump of the stolen log (the forest was logged in late August or September when leaves were still on trees). Their attempts to cover their crime was futile because the crown of this sycamore fell even father onto the neighbor's land bringing down another one of their sycamores (one farther inside the property line) and young American elm with it. This scene of devestation and waste was shown in the next slide. Such action (inaction with regard to the hackberry) was about as mindless as everything else that these woods idiots did because anyone less stupid than these jaspers could read the crime scene. Notwithstanding, leaving the young tree (and of a species with wood superior to sycamore) did provide one example (even if for the wrong reason) leaving some trees for the next wood crop (which would undoubtedly to be high-graded as well). This was the only one of several sawed sycamores that was not hollow (ie. fit for harvest)-- and it was stolen from the neighbors as well as being felled incorrectly. Readers should again take note that either an undercut was a) too small and/or improperly placed or b) not made at all (most likely the latter). Students will also observe that there was very little if any stump shot. Instead three cuts were used in felling the tree which remained attached for a time at the stump where it had not been sawed through for a distance of over one-third the diameter of the trunk. What gross incompetence! And these buffons were let loose in timber. Felling terms were defined in the immediately preceding caption. These same two trees (with the sycamore standing) were shown above where it was described how the climax hackberry (a species rated as Tolerant) was replacing the pioneer (and Intolerant) sycamore. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

72. More slash and more waste- Crown of a sycamore that was felled in the wrong direction so that it broke off the crown of a neighboring box elder and fell into the crown of a young American elm which was promptly sawed off. All three trees were on the neighbor's land. This crown was of the sycamore that was wrongly (illegally and improperly) felled as shown and described in the immediately preceding slide-caption set. The box elder that was broken off was hollow (as were almost all of sycamores in this forest tract). The sapling of American elm was potentially part of the next timber crop. The large limbs of the sycamore were left to rot which as was described above (the "slash and waste" caption) could be interpreted as either waste of wood or beneficial debris. These limbs were not straight enough to be sawed into lumber (unlike the previously discussed case of northern red oak) so about the only potential direct human use of such slash was for fire wood. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

73. Degraded wildlife habitat or timber stand improvement?- A hollow chinquapin oak felled in high-grade logging. It would have been obvious to most knowledgable fellers that this was a hollow tree, but the jokers high-grading this tract did good to tell trees from a fence posts (they conveniently overlooked the latter when stealing timber across the fenceline). The hollow of this tree extended to the outside of its trunk (right side of stump in this photograph) so that an observant feller would have seen that the tree was not worth the effort or saw fuel to fell. (These wood jokers with chainsaws were not stellar examples of the "Gospel of Efficiency" though textbook examples of timber theft and poor felling technique.) Felling of such "trash trees" is another practice the management properity of which is subject to forest goals and value judgments. From standpoint of commercial timber production this chinquapin oak could be regarded as a wolf tree, one with a relatively large crown that takes up space, uses soil water, blocks light, etc. so as to compete with or even exclude more economically valuable trees (Helms, 1998). Elimination of such "trash timber" permits production of other trees that are superior from the standpoint of stumpage. The opposite view is equally valid from the standpoint of wildlife production and structure/function of old-growth forest. While hollow trees like this chinquapin oak are unfit for any wood production except fire wood (and obviously of very limited utility for fuel) their cavities make ideal homes for cavity nesting birds like pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis), and wood duck (Aix sponsa); furbearers such as coon (Procyon lotor) and 'possum (Didelphis virginiana); and smaller mammals as, for example, eastern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans). The generally valid management practice of getting rid of trees that have no stumpage value so as to permit growth of more monetarily valuable trees was negated--at least in the near term--in the specific instance of this chinquapin oak because the guy that felled this tree broke off a neighboring ten to fifteen year-old box elder. No, box elder, a soft maple, is not a species particularily valuable for lumber, but box elder iis exactly the prdominant tree species that will pioneer this patch of cut-over ground. Only now the landowner will have to wait another decade or more to get back what was killed in felling the "trash tree". So again value judgments largely determine forest goals on small forest stands such as the this tract of about three acres (of legally owned property; not counting adjacent property from which loggers stole timber). Given that there were only two trees of any lumber value (and far more future timber value was destroyed than was harvested of current marketable wood), many (porbably most) owners of such small acreage would opt for having wildlife and "pretty woods" to walk along the creek through rather than havea a mess and tornatic-like devestation for several years. In fact, that is the stated reason most people give for moving from town to their recluse on a small place in the Ozarks. Conversely, if the small landowner would rather have a proverbial "plug nickel" from high-grading that could go toward property taxes than see a pileated woodpecker or enjoy an old-growth forest he could justify the situation seen in these photographs in this treatment. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

74. Patch cut- A small clearing in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest created by high-grade logging (and extraordinarily wasteful and unnecessaarily destructive even by high-grading standards). This is another and more general or summary view of timber extraction on this small tract. The stump at left midground was a box elder and the one at far right (midground) was a chinquapin oak. This photograph was used as a base line from which slides in subsequent years could serve to show redevelopment of forest vegetation. In other words, this patch of cut-over bottomland forest was an example of "new land" or an area Clementsian denudation from which the "dynamic vegetation" of secondary plant succession could be photographically displayed. This is the start point of patch dynamics. Trees still standing in the distant background were mostly on another property (this property did not suffer timber theft). Tree species included larger individuals of northern red oak, sycmore, chinquapin oak, box elder, and white ash along with smaller trees of the climax hackberry, American elm and pignut or bitternut hickory. Herbaceous vegetation in the clearing was almost exclusively dead nettle (Lamium purpureum) and common mouse-ear chichweed (Cerastium vulgatum), both of which are naturalized (and weedy) Eurasian, cool-seasopn annual forbs. There were also some plants of the native chickweed (C. brachlypodum) and false rune anemone (Isopyrum biternatium) along with smaller cover of bigleaf waterleaf (Hydrophyllum canadense) and Virginia waterleaf (H. virginianum), all native forbs. Graminoids included Virginia andd silky wildryes (Elymus virginicus, E. villosus, respectively) and Davis' caaric sedge (Carex davisii), all natives. These natives were overwhelmed by dead nettle and mouse-ear chickweed, but in this winter society--and in no small part due to logging disturbance-- these native graminoids were to wait until later in the spring season to have their "moment in the sun". This same herbaceous layer was also presented in several photographs above such as the one for the caption entitled "Slash and waste" and in the two slides shown immediately below. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

75. Stolen timber and stump pull- This stump was that of another black walnut log stolen off neighboring property, and in clear view of the last part of the original property line fence (hand-poured concrete fence post). Outright, blatant timber theft!. As it turned out stumpage (commercial value of standing or uncut timber) this black walnut and, ultimately, of the log itself was exrtremely low due to the hollow or cavity (admittedly small) caused by decay of heartwood (second slide). If that had not been bad enough, the entire log was rendered nearly worthless (essentially a total loss with regard to walnut lumber) due to the same improper felling procedure (no or inadequate undercut, tree felled in wrong direction, etc ) that was shown and described in slides and captions above. Shown in these two slides was a textbook example of stump pull. Stump pull is the condition or situation whereby wood fibers remain attached to the stump as the tree falls resulting in removal of these fibers from the log. This greatly reduces the value of the log. In fact, if enough fibers are pulled from the log it can be a complete economic loss (and before the tree hits the ground) as was the case here. The log from this amateurish felling job is fit only for pallet lumber or, perhaps, only fire wood. (It was that good a quality log as standing timber.) Stump pull (= pulled fibers) typically takes place when the undercut was improperly placed so that the tree starts to fall before the backcut reaches the undercut. The height or longest segment of pulled fibers remaining attached to this stump exceeded seven feet (first slide). Furthermore, thickness of the pulled fiber extended about a quarter way through the log (first slide). A very sad end for what was at one time a valuable black walnut. The log was stolen and then it was rendered nearly worthless (other than as salvage wood) by improper felling and the story did not end there. The rest of this 'botched crime" and the final stage of this woeful tale of lumber robbery was recorded in the next two slides. Sadly, many (certainly a high proportion) of the small, independent sawmills (gypo mills in the lingo of western logging) in the western Ozark Plateau have a reputation (and again, regretably, a deserved reputation) just above child molesters and horse theives. This is pictorial evidence of timber theft, a crime on par with cattle rustling. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December. Important caution to landowners who would have timber to sell: check with knowledgable neighbors as to the reputation of any would-be buyers who operate or work for "piss ant" gypo sawmills. In the Ozark Plateau of northeastern Oklahoma, southwestern Missouri, and northwestern Arkansas a high propotion of sawmill folks are shisters, timber theives, and lumber confidence men, etc.

76. Lumber left in the woods- "Waste always makes me angry" (Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind, Margaret Mitchell, 1936). The upper trunk (portion just below the crown) of a black walnut stolen from adjoining property and improperly felled resulting in stump pull. The stump with pulled fibers extending for a length of overr seven feet was shown and explained in the previous slide-caption unit (immediately above). To further compound this illegal, unethical, and amateurish act the fellers left between seven and eight feet of clear, mature black walnut timber as seen here. Viewers will readily see that the wood in this log left to rot in the woods was good "fully ripe" black walnut. There was about 13 inches of mature (ie. walnut-colored) wood within the zones of bark and living sapwood. In fact, given hollowness of the standing tree (and, then, the log) plus the fact that almost eight feet of a large section of wood fibers were torn from the log (stump pull) by imporper felling (slides immediately above), the section of trunk left in the forest was probably about the only part of the log that had any walnut lumber value. What a bunch of zeros this woods yahoos were. It should be stressed that the landowner who sold this stumpage was not in any way resolved of any of the action of this high-grading (and timber theft). The landowner might or might not be legally liable for the stolen timber, but he most surely was ultimately the party most culpable and the one who suffered the greatest loss. Neglect and ignorance of action (and of the law) would not absolve this (or any other) landowner of any legal, ethical, and/or moral wrongs committed with his permission and blessing. Any fiduciary duties (if only to future generations) of the landowner were (are) not obviated as a result of unprofessional conduct by those whom he hired, cooperated with, or sold products to. The landowner could have checked into the reputation of the local sawmill operator he sold his timber to. A reiterated caution to owners of black walnut trees: Never sell walnut logs to anybody without first checking into the reputation and record of integrity (or lack thereof) of anyone who offers to buy black walnut from you. In certain areas such as the western Ozark Mountain Region many, and probably most, men who offer to buy walnut logs are crooks, in effect timber theives. These wood robbers are unscrupulous agents in the lumber traffic who either a) are uneducated in proper felling, bucking, skidding, and selling logs or b) knowingly cheat clueless, trusting tree sellers. An unsettlingly high percentage of those who take black walnut logs out of the woods avail themselves of every opportunity to cheat (an unethical but legal form of lumber theft) those most vulnerable such as land-owning widows, the elderly, and newcomers. These con-men return only a small portion of log price to the tree owner usually with a fake apology about the current low market price for walnut lumber. This author was, as a young man and naive hillbilly, a victim of just such ruthless dealings by an independent "walnut man" who turned out to be a lumber crook. Public servants of state forest or natural resource departments (eg. Missouri Department of Conservation) frequently have list of repuptable, fair-dealing walnut log jobbers. There are fine, upstanding, hard-working, God-fearing folk in the walnut log business, but many are the opposite. Never make assumptions when selling black walnut logs. A safe and herein recommended rule of thumb is this: everyone who offers to buy walnut logs off of a landowner is a shister, a timber thief, until proven otherwise. Honest walnut loggers are out there, but you have to know where and how to find them. Such as life in all things of quality. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December.

Simple post script: It is is the total disregard for resources and life in general that caused the scene just seen. Such senseless carnage and wastage have created the largely bumb rap and bad reputation that the profession of Forestry and the forest industries have been trying to live down for decades. Battles against such crimes (both legal and ethical) as just shown will, unfortunately, be endless as long as there are humans in the woods who would rather fell and steal trees than grow the wood crop.

The next chapter in the sad saga of cut-and-run logging of the Modoc Creek mixed hardwood bottomland forest. The preceding episode showed results of high-grade logging (and timber theft) of this climax forest (based on features of species composition and physiogonomy; not old-growth) in early winter following timber harvest (successional denudation; ecosystem perturbation) the preceding late summer/early autumn. The following set of slides and captions described vegetation of the recovering forest during the following mid-spring through early summer (ie. approximate midpoint of the first full growing season after wood-cutting operations). Vegetational response ranged from classic secondary plant succession typical of cutover forest to simple resprouting of felled trees (ie. regrowth of established young to adult trees) of all species some of which were climax species. Similarily, there were numerous seedlings (sexual regeneration) of all tree species, both climax and seral, tolerant and intolerant, except for sycamore. Lack of sexual reproduction in sycamore was clearly atypical response. It was hypothesized by the author that it was too early in the revegetation process (too soon following logging) for appearance of seedlings of sycamore, a characteristic pioneering/colonizing species.

11421 and 11422.

Unpunishable crime- Severe damage to bank of Modoc Creek caused by action by amateur loggers (and, as shown above, timber thieves) followed by soil erosion during spring flooding. Trees on the immediate bank od streams should not be logged other than in emergency situations (eg. backup of flood waters so as to increase threats to human life and flood damage to property). To make matters worse and add injury on top of injury, woodcutters carelessly knocked down the young boxelder (part of the future would-have-been wood crop) the log of which laid across the foreground of the first of these two photographs. The pioneer plant community of this severely eroded stream bank included black nightshade (Solanum americanum), pokeberry, horseweed or mare's tail (Conyza canadensis), common or bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), and beef steak plant (Perilla frutescens). The last two of these are naturalized exotics (from Eurasia and the subcontinent of India, respectively). This was the scene late spring following spring flooding and about nine months after high-grading logging. This land was private property--and even though the logging was done on the sly (and by the tenant not the actual landowner) and resulted in inflicted flood damage on downstream landowners--there was essentially no legal recourse by which this poor stewardship could be punished or justice rendered to neighbors whose adjoined land was harmed. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11423.

Phytocolonizers- The pioneering or first seral stage in secondary plant succession on a cutover mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the immediate bank of Modoc Creek, a typical stream in the western Ozark Plateau. The most prominent and local dominant at this late spring season was black nightshade. The dying ground cover was common chickweed (Stellaria media), a naturalized Eurasian annual of family Caryophyllaceae, Large umbrella-like leaves were of mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), a native perennial forb. In background were a few plants of mare's tail or horseweed, a native annual compositethat is a classic colonizer of old fields and cutover forests. The crown (upper limbs) that remained as slash were of black walnut. The log of this tree was ruined totally as a veneer sawlog because the unskilled (and perhaps drunk or dopped) woodcutters felled it imporperly leaving over a yard of stump pull on the log and torn from the heartwood of the now-worthless log. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11933 and 11939.

Fabric of an alien carpet- Common chickweed (Stellaria media), a naturalized Eurasian annual, was the dominant of the herbaceous understorey of a cutover (highgraded) mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This forb of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae) is widely distributed and nearly ubiquitous on disturbed habirtats throughout the Ozark Highlands, especially in winters and springs having moisture and temperature conditions favorable to this invasive species. While common chickweed unquestionably is a weed, its presence on this drastically altered forest community was assuredly beneficial. It provided a living protective cover on certain parts of the floor of the imporperly harvested forest that otherwise would have been far more vulnerable to ravages of soil loss by flood waters. This was the case because other (and native) species in the sporadic (patchy) cover of the forest floor were perennials and could not colonize bare ground.(These various native perennials included species of grasses, caric sedges, and forbs, as well as seedlings of shrubs and trees all of which were covered elsewhere in this section.) Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; late-bloom phenological stage.

11940, 11941, and 11942.

Up close to a forest alien- Detailed views of upper shoots of common chickweed. Most plants were approaching the post-bloom stage, but a few floral specimens were present for viewers' education.Common chickweed is a pesky weed of disturbed areas throughout the Ozark Plateau Region, but (as was explained immediately above) presence of this naturalized (from Eurasia) cool-season annual provides a protective carpet for otherwise bare soil in yards, garden plots, overgrazed pastures, and receltly logged forests. The white man--through species introduction followed by denudation that caused ecosystem disfunction--obviously created a new ecological niche for this exotic invader. In this naturalized and invasive alien really a weed if it provides a protective benefit to the ecosystem thereby promoting forest recovery? Be ready to defend your answer. 10 points. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; late-bloom phenological stage.

11424, 11425 and 11426.

Cutover colonizers- Three views of a local clearcut area resulting from high-grading logging of a mixed hardwood forest on floodplain of Modoc Creek, a perennial stream in the western Springfield (Ozark) Plateau. This was the appearance of the first seral stage (the colonizing plant community) in the first spring after denudation by woodcutting. Standard colonizing species of such cutover forest, which were visible in all three of these slides, included horseweed or mare's-tail, black nightshade, bull or common thistle, and common chickweed, the last two of which were nautualized Eurasian weeds.(Chickweed was the groundcover species and not prominent in these slides.) In the first of these three slides a seedling of western hackberry (left foreground), a climax dominant tree of this forest, was accompanied by various sprouts of the shrub, elderberry (Sambucus canadensis), that in newly available and unlimited light was released from the lower woody layer. The tree of intermediate pole size in background was a young adult hackberry that was wantonly felled for nothing. Such wasteful and hatchet-happy sawing was on par with shamful shooting of bison on the plains where they too were left to rot with nothing utilized following senseless slaughter. The woody resprouts to left of the felled hackberry were those of spicebush (Linderia benzoin) that was a climax understorey dominant which had been topkilled the preceding winter by temperatures as low as -20 degrees fahrenheit. The second slide of this local clearcut was also of seral vegetation dominated by horesweed or mare's-tail with some bull thistle and black nightshade along with a seedling of white ash (right foreground) and resprouts of summer grape (Vitis aestivalis). Another seedling of white ash was visible in the third photograph (left-center midground) as well as sprouts of winter topkilled spicebush. There were scattered plants of silky wildrye (Elymus villosus), Davis' caric sedge (Carex davisii), and James' caric sedge (C. jamesii) throughout this clearcut patch though cover was considerably less than in a smaller clearcut spot shown in the two slides immediately below. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11427 and 11428.

Plant life on a smaller clearcut area- Adjoining the larger clearcut patch described in the immediately preceding three photographs was this littlier "slicked-off" spot of a floodplain mixed hardwood forest. The cespitose graminoids (featured prominently in the first of these two slides) at this spot were silky wildrye, Davis' caric sedge, and James' caric sedge. The prominent bushes with large eliptical leaves were spicebush, the dominant climax shrub of this bottomland which had been topkilled by temperatures as low as -20 degrees fahrenheit resulting from a "blue norther" (Arctic cold front) that brought a blizzard in the preceding early February. Most of the rest of the recovering forest vegetation was mare's-tail or horseweed, black nightshade, and bull thistle; in winter and early spring Eurasian common chichweed had dominated as a groundcover forb. The stump was that of a black walnut that had been stolen in the previous late summer (wood-monkeys legally cutting trees on adjoining property stole this, and most of the larger trees they logged, off of a neighbor who was an absentee landowner). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

11429, 11430, and 11431.

A tree that won't stay down- Three-slide set showing coppicing of black walnut in late spring after the original genetic individual had been felled in the previous late summer-early autumn. This tree was one of several felled in a mixed hardwood forest that developed on the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Plateau. Some of the smaller--and, presumedly, younger--walnut trees sprouted from their stumps, the phenomenon known generally as coppicing. This stump produced these coppice shoots (known variously as stool shoots, stump sprouts, resprouts) late in the preceding autumn. The shoots managed to survive an extremely cold winter (temperatures went as low as -20 degrees fahrenheit) and had made this much growth by late in the following spring. Stool is a living stump capable of coppicing (producing shoots) (Helms, 1998). All the walnut logs taken from this forest were stolen off of a neighbor's land which butted against the property woodcutters were authorized to log, and the walnuts were all improperly felled either resulting in stump pull and/or destruction of nearby younger walnut trees. The absentee owner of the logged walnuts was clueless about the timber theft. Three-trunked tree immediately behind the coppicing black walnut was white ash. This multi-trunk feature resulted from stum sprouting (coppicing) the last time this white ash tree was felled. (Reckon that was illegal logging, too?) There was some Virginia creeper (Pathenocissus quinquefolia) and pokeweed or pokeberry growing by the walnut sprouts. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11432.

Progress of growth- Growth of coppice shoots of the black walnut introduced in the immediately preceding three slides five weeks thereafter. This tree was a member of mixed hardwood forest that developed on the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the western Springfield Plateau. Record drought and heat existed at time of photograph so growth was much less than would have been typical. Black walnut produces an alleochemical, juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthalenedione) is an enzyme that inhibits respiration (Rice, 1984, p. 77) so as to be toxic to numerous plants (as well as insect herbivores) though not to all climax trees. For example, oak, maple, elm, and hackberry species as well as such shrubs including pawpaw poison ivy, grape, and Virginia creeper are tolerant of juglone (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affarirs, un dated). In other words, just about all the plant species growing in this bottomland forest. In this author's observation black walnut generally does not make palatable browse for white-tailed deer perhaps due to presencce of juglone although Burns and Honkala (1990) noted that deer ate buds of black walnut.led deer. On this same floodplain forest white-tailed deer browsed slightly on coppice shoots of sycamore and heavily stump sprouts of American elm and white ash.. Speaking of which, proceed to next and subsequent slides... Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early summer.

11433.

Another tree that won't stay (and one with an additional handicap)- Stump sprouts in American elm that had been felled on floodplain of Modoc Creek in the preceding late summer-early autumn. Unlike coppicing black walnut featured immediated above, stump sprouts of elm were palatable to white-tailed deer which had severely browsed these shoots. Such defoliation could have had an adverse impact on tree regrowth or, alternatively, such browsing could have had a net beneficial effect on the tree by eliminating some of the competing shoots and--if regrowth of some shoots was left untouched--resulted in increased growth with elimination of apical dominance. At time of photograph every elm shoot had its apical bud removed by browsing deer, and this was early summer in a severe drought year. Deer-browsing can be detrimental to forest regeneration. Some Virginia creeper and silky wildrye was growing by stump shoots. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July; early summer.

11434.

Two approaches to tree regeneration- Edge of a local clearcut patch of mixed hardwood bottomland forest that had been high-grade logged in late summer-early autumn of last year. Recovering forest vegetation included seedlings of American or white elm and both seedlings and stump sprouts of white ash demonstrating both sexual and asexual reproduction of tree species that were associate species of the climax forest. Two stumps of white ash were visible: one in left midground and one in background by standing bole (see also immediately below). American elm also had numerous stump sprouts as shown in the preceding photograph. Some browsing on a few elm seedlings by white-tailed deer was evident in this photograph. Some of these seedling had obviously germinated and emerged in the late autumn shortly after logging. Other species in this "photoquadrant" including coppice shoots of spicebush, a dominant shrub of the understorey, that had been topkilled by winter temperatures as low as -20 degrees fahrenheit (an "Alberta clipper" combined with a blizzard in early February). Considerable cover of Virginia creeper was present. Dead buff-coplored ground cover was common chichweed, a naturalized Eurasian annual weed. There were also some plants of silky wildrye; these had not been grazed. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

.11444 and 11445.

More tree regereration- Interior of the local clearcut patch of mixed hardwood bottomland forest shown in the preceding photograph. First of these two photographs was a general view of recovering forest vegetation whereas second slide was a closer view of plants in right foreground of first slide. Inside this small area of forest denudation there were seedlings of trees that were either climax or seral species that persisted into the climax stage as well as herbaceous species. The latter included silky wildrye, James caric sedge, and Davis caric sedge. Tree seedlings in first slide were (left to right): western hackberry, northern red oak, and boxelder. The second slide featured the northern red oak and boxelder. The taller seedlings had emerged and made some growth in late summer to early autumn of the previous year shortly after destructive high-grade logging by timber theives. (This land was owned by a neighbor who did not want his land logged, but woodcutters legally logging the adjoining property stole timber off of this absentee landowner.The theives also stole his metal Powder River gate. These bastards were bad to the bone.) Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May; late spring.

11452.

More seedlings and sprouts later on- Seedlings of boxelder, northern red oak, and hackberry along with American bladdernut (left background) and resprouts from topkilled spicebush (left foreground) on a small local area that had been clearcut under high-grade logging late in the preceding year. Some of the larger seedlings (especially those of boxelder) appeared to have started growth shortly after logging in late summer or early autumn last year so as to be in about the middle of the second growing season. Other seedlings were of such small size as to indicate germination/emergence during the current (first-year) warm-growing season. Spicebush shoots also originated during the present spring-summer season following topkill from severe winter cold (temperatures at least -20 degrees fahrenheit) of a "blue norther" combined with a blizzard (early February). A mixed hardwood bottomland forest in western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early summer.

11435

Daring to grow back (apparently at least the second time)- Initial growth of stump sprout or coppice shoot of white ash from trunk of a tree that had been felled the previous late summer-early autumn. This tree had two trunks that almost assuredly were themselves stump sprouts from logging approximately 60 years ago. (The author remembered from his boyhood when this forest had been partially logged and he had watched the forest "grow back".) These trunks were on the edge of a tract of mixed hardwood creek bottom forest on land owned by a neighbor that adjoined the part of this tract that had been contracted for logging. The railroad tie that served as a corner post was all that remained of the fence between the two properties, but it was conspicuous. Most of the better timber--including every logged black walnut--was on the neighboring property. Woodcutters stole much of this higher-quality timber, seemingly as much as they thought they could "cover up" or get away with, including the log taken from the stump shown here. They left the other part of the white ash (outer trunk and crown) which was the same diameter and bole length as the one that was stolen. The logical conclusion drawn from investigation of this forest crime scene was that the uncut trunk was left as "cover" for the crime of timber theft. Such is the working of the criminal (and, in this instance, likely retarded) mind. Note the Virginia creeper growing its way up the stump. Live stumps with the ability to coppice such as this one are known to foresters as stools (Helms, 1998). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11436 and 11437.

Five weeks of growth minus some- Five weeks after beginning growth from a stump of white ash a cluster of coppice shoots or stump sprouts had achieved this growth. Roughly half of the shoots had been browsed by resident white-tailed deer to the degree that most of the leader length of the browsed shoots had been removed. Deer-defoliated ash shoots were visible at base of stump and in greater detail in the next two-slide set. Stump sprouts or coppice shoots are long shoots, shoots with a relatively large terminal (apical) bud with comparatively little branching or floral tissue that make rapid vegetative (vs. sexual) growth. Carboydrates stored in roots and, to some extent, in, cambium of shoots can be quickly converted and translocated as glucosethereby permitting tremendous vegetative growth of long shoots. Long shoots are sometimes called water shoots. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early summer.

11438 and 11439.

Minus some- Degree of browsing on white ash coppice shoots by white-tailed deer. Two views of the white ash shoots introduced above. The first view showed the base of the live stump or stool (Helms, 1998) with adjacent forest vegetation which included silky wildrye, Short's caric sedge, horseweed or mare's-tail, Virginia creeper, trumpet creeper, poison ivy/oak, and several seedlings of American elm. This latter, one of the climax dominants of this mixed hardwood floodplain forest, reproduced by both asexual reproduction through stump coppicing and sexual regeneration as seen here. The second view was a close-in view to give a detailed view of the pattern of browsing by white-tailed deer. Note from these two photographs and the one immediately above that some coppice shoots were not browsed (at least not at time of photographs). The possibility that defoliation of some shoots could result in more rapid growth of undefoliated shoots that could then rise beyond reach of browsing deer. Removal of some shoots and reduction in overall apical dominance could have resulted in elevation of remaining shoots out of reach of deer. Scientists must retain a degree of objectivity and consider as many possibilities as they can think of. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early summer.

11440.

Another white ash daring to grow back- Another stump resulting from timber theft on a mixed hardwood bottomland forest had coppiced and produced stump shoots of this size by late spring of the first full growing year after felling. This log was stolen in late summer-early autumn of the previous year and, unlike the white ash stump shoots of the preceding example, had initiated growth of these shoots soon after harvest (and quickly before the first fall frost). This tree was growing farther inside the forest that was on adjoining land than the two-trunk ash seen above. Timber theives stood a better chance of stealing this log without detection than trunks that were standing closer to the edge of the forest. Younger and/or smaller trees with generally thinner bark of more likely to produce stump sprouts than are older trees with thicker bark. Living stumps that can produce coppice shoots are known as stools (Helms, 1998). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11441 and 11442.

Five weeks of growth on this white ash- Five weeks following the extent coppice shoot growth of a white ash introduced in the immediately preceding slide, this much more shoot growth had taken place (and in a severe drought). This set of ash resprouts had largely escaped deer browsing. There were two young poles of western hackberry in left background and one pole-sized white in right background of first photograph. In the second slide here were some leaves of trumpet creeper visible in fromt of ash sprouts. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early summer.

11443.

Splintered wood, shattered dreams (but the dream lived on)- Hatchet-happy, don't-give-a-damn woodcutters carelessly felled two mid-sized white ash trees on top of this young black walnut (the would-have-been next lumber crop) breaking it completely off somewhere between ten to twelve feet above ground level. The young walnut (pole-sized; ready for sale as a veneer log in about a quarter century) "bravely" sent out coppice shoots from intercalary meristem.all along its trunk. The tree's "will to live" prevailed and, in spite of a blasted trunk, was in process of recovering. Obviously this tree will never produce a log of any consequence though it may develop cavities that provide shelter for wildlife. This black walnut tree was stolen the same as the two white ash (stumps of both shown immediately above) that brought it down. Contrary to popular assumptions, timber theft is a major problem in areas where land-holdings are of small acreages. Forest robbery is not limited to land of large timber companies. In fact, "little men" landowners probably are more likely to be robbed of valuable timber (in some cases black walnut shade trees from front yards) because access to trees is more available and small land-owners less apt to be aware of the threat. (This is a parallel to cattle rustling from hobby stockmen often being more likely and commonplace than from large ranchmen who "know the ropes".) Local hill talk was that this wood was stolen to support a drug addiction. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11448 and 11449.

A recovering (and surviving?) sycamore- Coppicing of a sycamore felled the preceding late summer-early autumn (this same stump was shown in the preceding section dealing with the cut-and-run logging of this mixed hardwood bottomland forest. This stump was readily identifiable by the chunk of wood that remained attached to the stump surface when fellers either failed to made a large enough backcut and/or failed to properly place or follow through on the undercut. Also serving as a "landmark" was the hackberry sapling left uncut to immediate right of the sycamore. This hackberry sapling was left uncut so that is canopy would serve as cover to hide (to the extent possible) from exterior of this forest tract the crime scene of this stolen sycamore. (Larger boxelder, hackberry, American elm, and chinquapin oak growing deeper inside the forest were senselessly felled by hatchet-happy fellers.) This sycamore was obviously growing on neighboring private property several feet from the fenceline. Woodcutters legally logging the adjoining part of this forest robbed the absentee landowner of his timber. This tree as well as the black walnut and white ash shown immediately above were all stolen from their absentee owner. Story in the woods was that the money from this timber theft was used by the theiving neighbor to support his drug addiction. Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11450.

Deer were at it again- Browsing by white-tailed deer on apical parts of stump (coppice) shoots of sycamore. This was a nice example of the phenomenon of apical dominance. Deer removed the apical (terminal) bud and upper part of this shoot whereupon the axillary bud below the removed (eaten) internode developed. Removal of the apical or terminal bud, which was the source of auxin that suppressed ("dominated") lower meristems (meristematic tissue), permitted development/differentiation of the subtending (lower or beneath) bud. On the deer range of this mixed hardwood bottomland forest coppice shoots of sycamore were less palatable than coppice shoots of American elm andwhite ash, but more palatable than those of black walnut (described above). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June; late spring.

11451.

Sycamore stickin' to it- Growth of coppice shoots on felled sycamore five weeks after growth shown in two immediately preceding photographs. This was the same stump shown in the preceding section that described high-grading of this mixed hardwood bottomland forest. The sapling of western hackberry growing at immediate right of the stump in these (and above section) photographs served as a "landmark" as, for that matter, did the wood remaining on this stump that resulted from improper felling (either too small a backcut or incomplete uncercut). The hackberry sapling was left so that its canopy could serve as some cover of the crime scene when viewed from the exterior of the forest tract. (Other, and much larger hackberry, American elm, and boxelder trees growing in the interior of the tract were needlessly felled by the hatchet-happy theives.) This sycamore stump constituted a stool, a live stump capable of growing shoots or commpicing (Helms, 1998). Modoc Creek floodplain, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-July; early summer.

Moving upstream: An ephemeral stream that was a tributary of Modoc Creek entered immediately upstream from the bottomland (floodplain) forest that was just described. In summary that forest which was developing on the greater floodplain of Modoc Creek was progressing through processes of plant succession from a subclimax sycamore-eastern cottonwood- northern red oak-Shummard oak-dominated community to a climax western hackberry-American elm-white ash-bitternut hickory forest. Another tract ("branch" or "arm") of that bottomland forest had developed along the tributary of the "wet weather" drainage. This forest range community was contiguous with the one just presented. It bordered on the other side of the old fiield shown and described immediately above. The upstream bottomland forest range was slightly above the floodplain of Modoc Creek though, again, conterminous with it. Forest vegetation on the Modoc Creek tributary had developed on a less mesic forest site with shallower and, almost assuredly, less fertile soil. Many of the same plant species were common to both floodplain and tributory forest range; however, there were conspicuous and ecologically meaningful differences between the two tracts of bottomland forest including those in forest structure or architecture, age class structure of trees, density and cover of trees, and herbaceous layer (in addition to those in plant species composition). The most important and practical difference (at least from standpoint of this photographic presentation) was in light conditions, both intensity and duration. This was due to greater density of smaller and generally less mature trees in the tributary forest the result of which--from much of spring through to leaf fall during mid-autumn--in more complete and denser canopy cover. This vegetational structure excluded most light from the lower forest layers and permitted much shorter periods of light when photosynthetically active radiation could penetrate the upper forest cover. As such, photographing of this forest vegetation--especially the herbaceous layer-- and details of tree trunks could only or, at least, best be achieved during winter. Even then the angle of winter sunrise and sunset was so much farther to the south that there was never a period of time when direct light reached more northerly exposures. This resulted in dimlite appearances combined with shadows from tree trunks as the bane of this winter forest photographer. Viewers will have to suffer along with him at some shots.

77. Seral and climax- Second-growth mixed hardwood forest on tributary of Modoc Creek (western border of Ozark Plateau) immediately above creek's floodplain with western hackberry (the climax dominant) and American elm, slippery elm, pignut or bitternut hickory, mockernut hickory, and white ash (climax associates or, locally, co-dominants in various combinations with western hackberry) succeeding black walnut and honey locust. Chinquapin oak, boxelder, and red mulberry were also present at meaningful porportions of relative cover. The successional status of these latter three species was unclear. The major shrub was buckbrush or coralberry on land having less tree density and canopy cover and fox or frost grape where tree density and crown cover were greater.Common greenbriar, poison ivy, and trumpet creeper were present sporadically. Other than local habitats where buckbrush was dominant, the preeminent part of the understorey of this tributary forest was the herbaceous layer which consisted almost exclusively of Canada or nodding wildrye. This was strikingly different from the more mesic forest on the Modoc Creek floodplain which supported a more diverse understorey (see above) including an herbaceous layer dominated by silky and Virginia wildrye. The first of these two photographs was a second-growth bottomland forest dominated by pignut or bitternut hickory (two foremost trees in center to right foreground, the clump of three trunks in center background on bank of the ephemeral stream channel) and hackberry (largest tree that was also on stream bank [at left margin of midground], large sapling in front of the clump of pignut hickory in background). Both pignut hickory and western hackberry were climax species. There were also a few trees of mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa= ) that were indistinguishable in background. There was regeneration of both Carya species represented by various age classes from large seedling through sapling and pole to mature tree. Dead shoots from last year and green shoots of the current cool-growing season of Canada or nodding wildrye (both visible in foreground) indicated the sole dominant of the herbaceous layer of the understorey. In the second photograph young hackberry (foremost pole-sized tree in left foreground; sapling in right midground; "sliver" of a trunk at left margin) were succeeding two log-sized, mature black walnut (diagonally opposite each other in midground) while white ash (three large trees in right background), pignut or bitternut hickory (foremost tree situated between the two walnuts) and boxelder (tree to left of the pignut hickory in far background) persisted (probably as climax) into this subclimax state forest. Canada wildrye was present (and generally conspicuous) as both last year's dead and current cool-growing seson shoots. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

78. Seral forest on a tributary of an Ozark creek- A second-growth mixed hardwood forest dominated by black walnut and honey locust had been successfully invaded by hackberry, slippery or red elm, and American or white elm which were succeeding the seral black walnut and honey locust. Fox grape (conspicuous speicmen climbing black walnut in right foreground of first photograph) and buckbrush or coralberry (inconspicuous in these photographs) were the major shrubs. Herbaceous layer was the predominant layer of this forest understorey. It was dominated almost exclusively by Canada or nodding wildrye. Winter annual grasses, especially Japanese chess (Bromus japonicus), was present, but stood no chance at widespread invasion given dominance by vigerous plants of the the robust native, Canada wildrye. Winter forbs were absent. Dead shoots of elephantfoot (Elephantopus carolinianus), the major warm-season forb, were present. Elephantfoot is a native perennial composite. In the first photograph the three large trees on the right bank of this ephemeral channel were black walnut. The sapling on the opposite (left) bank was an American or white elm. Large tree at right margin in midground, sapling appearing to left of this tree and right of the three walnuts, and the largest tree in this scene (orn right bank behind the black walnuts and to front of a rotting snag ) were western hackberry which is the number climax dominant and the species with greatest recruitment (= regeneration). A large boxelder was near center of channel in distant background. Dead shoots of a dense colony of Canada wildrye were visible on the left channel bank in midground. The second photograph presented a textbook example of forest succession with one seral stage replacing another and displayed dramatically by two seral species of aging trees being succeeded by two climax species with saplings. Black walnut, an Intolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 2) seral species, represented by the two adult comparatively large trees in right foreground and one behind them, and honey locust, an Intolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 3) seral species, represented by the two largest trees in center midground were being succeeded by western hackberry (foremost tree, a sapling, at far right; several small trees in badkground including the one behind the fox grape in center), American elm (sapling directly in front of second or center black walnut), and slippery or red elm (sapling behind foremost hackberry sapling and in front of foremost black walnut). Shoots, both dead and live, of Canada or nodding wildrye (the dominant herbaceous species) were conspicuous. Greater detail of this vegetation at local scale was presented in photograhs below. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

79. Being replaced (more-or-less) while othr stay- Vegetation dynamics in a bottomland mixed hardwood forest on an ephemeral drainage in the Ozark Plateau. Dramatic example of elm replacing in successional order black walnut while younger trees of black walnut along with older trees of white ash, chinquapin oak, and western hackberry remain. Through all this turnover among tree species Canada or nodding wildrye (a climax decreaser) remained the overwhelming dominant of the herbaceous layer which was the predominant layer of the forest understorey. The first photograph presented a broader view of a "photographic sample" of a local stand in which largest (and, by inference, oldest) trees were black walnut as represented here by the largest tree (left midground). There had been regeneration of the Intolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 2) black walnut in the past as shown by trees of intermediate size such as foremost tree in immediate right foreground, but recent regeneration (recruitment) was of slippery or red elm as represented by the two saplings in front of big black walnut (left foreground), American or white elm, and western hackberry. Chinquapin oak (tree with light-colored bark to immediate right of big black walnut) and white ash such as the one opposite the chinquapin oak (right-center midground) persisted into what was developing into the climax forest vegetation. There were three large white ash in left background beyond the large black walnut. Big tree in center of distant background was an immense boxelder. Conspicuous shoots of Canada wildrye (several with clearly defined spikes such as those at base of big black walnut) proclaimed this species as the dominant of the herbaceous layer which was the most prominent part of the forest understorey. Second photograph was a "nested photoplot" within the larger "photosample" jsut described. The two saplings of red or slippery elm in front of the large, mature black walnut that was "escorted" by a small log-size chinquapin oak. Three nice mature (log-size) white ash as well as the white ash opposite the chinquapin oak represented this climax tree species. Small pole-size tree behind and to immediate of the white ash in right foreground was American elm. The very large boxelder in center of distant background was also still shown. Various plants of Canada wildrye, which was the herbaceous dominant, were obvious (due largely to the prominence of last year's dead shoots). These two photographs provided a textbook example of sucession and transition from one species to others of higher successional order. Black walnut, an Intolerant (Wenger, 1984, p, 2) and hence seral species (on this bottomland sere) was slowly being replaced through tree reproduction by red or slippery and American or white elm which, though somewhat variable, are generally Imtermediate in tolerance (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-3). Likewise, white ash was also listed as listed by Wenger (1984, ps. 2-3) as Intermediate. For this forest cover type (SAF 93: ugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash) the Intermediate species comprise a variant form of the climax eolm-ash forest of Kuchler (1964, p. 101) and as recognized in Garrison et al. (1977, ps. 15-16). This forest range vegetation was in process of achieving species composition and structure of the terminal forest vegetation on this bottomland site . Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

80. A lesson in plant succession- Close-up "photoplot" of the large black walnut and one of two slippery elm saplings introduced in the two immediately preceding photographs. This is "a picture worth a thousand words". Intolerant black walnut being replaced by Intermediate tolerance elm (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-3) as elaborated in the preceding caption. No further comment deemed necessary here. Canada or nodding wildrye was presented in clariity and promience appropriate for its presence as the overall dominant of the understorey. This natiive, perennial, festucoid grass was sole dominant of the herbaceous layer which was the most consistent and prominent stratum of this forest's understorey. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

81. Another stand, a different seral dominant, the same successional story- Honey locust, as represented by two "really big" and senescing trees, was being replaced by younger trees of western hackberry and American and red elms on this sere of a bottomland forest site just above the floodplain of Modoc Creek near the western border of the Ozark Plateau. The first slide was at distance to give some idea as to physiogonomy as well showing internal structure and species composition of this form of a mesic bottomland forest in the ecotone between eastern deciduous forest and the vegetational mosaic of tallgrass prairie and tallgrass-hardwood savannah immediately to the west. Second slide presented sufficient detail for description of species composition, structure (arrangement) of forest vegetation, and progression of plant succession. The two largest trees (center foreground and standing diagonal to one another) were comparatively ancient (over mature) honey locust with dead and dying limbs (complete with woodpecker nesting cavities) in their crowns and just enough thorns to proclaim their species identy. These "long-past-their-prime" senescing trees still looked out on younger honey locust trees (just beyond camera range) proving that their species' moment in the "successional sun" (span of time on this sere) was not completely over, but it was clear that their floristic reign as local dominant was past as honey locust was being replaced by both American or white elm and slippery or red elm which were dsstined to share climax dominance with western hackberry, the overall forest dominant. American elm was represented by the largest tree and one small pole or large sapling to right-rear of the two honey locusts in both slides while slippery elm claimed the other large sapling or small pole by the big American elm in the first slide. Western hackberry was present as the young adult tree behind and immediate left of foremost honey locust (both slides), young adult tree to left of big American elm (second slide), and as small sapling (immediate left foreground of second slide). The aray of age classes of the Intermediate in tolerance elms and hackberry and Intolerant honey locust (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-3) bespoke the inevitable replacement of honey locust by the hackberry-elm climax. This inexorable successional pathway, this progression along the sere, depends on absence of disturbance(s) severe enough that western hackberry and elm species are not halted in their advance so that honey locust (or species even more seral) reclaim their transitory throne. A plant of fox grape provided a continuous "thread" from lowest (ground) layer to highest layer (foret canopy) of this forest plant community. Here, as throughout the rest of this forest range vegetation, Canada or nodding wildrye dominated (essentially, exclusively so) the herbaceous layer which was the prominent one of the understorey. Buckbrush or coralberry was also present, but its leafless, short woody shoots (foreground of both slides as in front of foremost honey locust trunk) did not adequately proclaim it to be the most widespread shrub on this forest range. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

82. An opposite view of the stand just described- From the opposite end of the honey locust-dominated seral stand presented in the preceding two-slide set and caption the laina of fox or frost grape along with the short, woody shoots of buckbrush or coralberry (absent leaves and most fruit) presented the shrub layers of this bottomland forest range. Canada wildrye was present of course, but less conspicuously featured than in preceding slides. Successional replacement of Intolerant honey locust by Intermediate tolerance (and climax on this forest site) western hackberry American elm, and slippery elm was again the central theme of this photograph. Hackberry was represented by the large sapling or small pole to the forward and left of the big honey locust. Both Ulmus species were well-represented by saplings and small pole-sized trees to left of and behind the honey locust. There were also older, larger elm trees in distant background. This same local forest range vegetation was shown again below and from the same photo-point at a slightly farther distance in its advanced vernal aspect (late spring). And the old, slowly dying honey locusts were still alive. All this forest vegetation was on the banks of an ephemeral stream that was a tributary to Modoc Creek, the floodplain forest vegetation of which was described in detail above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

83. Calf pen trees- Numerous shoots of chinquapin oak that developed as stump (epicormic) sprouts from the previous tree on a tributary of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Plateau. The first two photographs (side-by-side) are of the same set of young adult clones, the second (right slide) being a closer view than that shown in the first. The third photograph was of a second set of epicormic shoots from a second previous tree. Agent of defoliation that removed the preceding tree trunks was unknown. There were no remains of stumps or logs. Based on surmise and fragmentary history of land use it seemed most likely that the former trees had been cut for firewood, but this was not known with certainity. It remained irrelevant because the original (at least preceding trunks or shoots) of both chinquapin oaks had been topkilled and the two genetic individuals resprouted. Burns and Honkala (1990) cited work which concluded that chinquapin oak readily resprouts resulting in shoots that are usually younger than their root systems. Resprouts (resgrown shoots) from sawed stumps are common. Such epicormic or water shoots are clonal organisms. These coppices or clones are ramets of the original genet (the genotype or unique genetic individual). Such coppicing can result in shoots developing into trees that originated from trees of genetypes that appeared several "generations" (cycles of shoot cutting and regrowing) earlier. Burns and Honkala,(1990) also explained that chinquapin oak is shade-intolerant, but young trees are less so than older ones. This means that regeneration of chinquapin oak is disproportionately greater than than indicated by tolerance of established individuals. Hence, chinquapin oak can reproduce asexually from stumps and, by relying to some extxent on reserve food stored in roots, grow into mature trees under some degree--perhaps substantial--of shading. These same authors interpreted chinquapin oak as climax on soils derived from limestone parent material even when these are droughty natured soils. Even on mesic forest sites chinquapin oak is "subclimax to climax" and present as part of the climax forest vegetation (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Shoots originating from previous trunks (phenomenon of coppicing) can grow into mature trees as large or larger than the original or, at least., preceding shoots (trees). Guargantian clumps of resprouted coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) have clonal shoots which grow to such immense size that they are known reverently as "cathedral trees" (examples presented in the chapter, Coast Redwood Forests, under Woodlands and Forests). This Okie author has also been to the National Catheral in our Nation's Capital, but he feels more at home in the smaller Oakdale churchhouse. Having had experience with both beef and dairy cattle in the Ozark Region this photographer felt it appropriate to dub these clonal clumps of chinquapin oak "calf pen trees". Eat your evergreen, redwooded hearts out prune-pickers. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. On a tributary of Modoc Creek. Early January; dormancy phenological stage.

84. Spring perspective on calf pen trees- The stump sprouts of chinquapin oak described immediately above in late spring. The herbaceous layer consisted of Canada . wildrye and silky wildrye; James caric sedge (Carex jamesii); Virginia creeper; and seedlings of hackberry, American elm, and bitternut hickory the climax dominants for this forest range type. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. On a tributary of Modoc Creek. Early June (vernal aspect).

85. Stand of pignut or bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis)- Local stand of pignut hickory on bank of an ephemeral stream that was a tributary into Modoc Creek in the western Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. All trees in photographs were pignut or bitternut hickory showing reproduction of this species as represented by various age classes. Downed branches resulted from an ice storm in late autumn of the previous year. Most plants in understorey were of buckbrush or coralberry and Canada wildrye and/or silky wildrye. The interlacing (anastomising) network of bark yet with a rather smooth appearance, especially, on upper trunk and limbs was characteristic of Carya cordiformis. Positive identificaation of these trees (trunks) was easy and foolproof given plentiful specimens of lower, terminal buds which in C. cordiformis are a giveaway sulphur-color. This is the only species of hickory to have this coloration. Some specimens of mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa) also grew on the banks of this ephemeral drainage. These trees were just beyond depth-of-field in these photographs, but they were presented later (below) in this section. These two Carya species are readily distinguished by features of winter twigs, especially buds, as was described immediately above as well as below. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

86. Two more trunks- Another example of trunks and bark pattern in pignut or bitternut hickory. These two trunks were in background of second slide shown immediately above. All were growing on the bank of an ephemeral stream serving as a tributary of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Highlands. Bitternut hickory is regarded as a climax species in several communities of bottomland and/or north slope mesic forests in the Ozark Region, including, as described in Eyre (1980), the hackberry-elm-ash cover type (SAF 93) shown in this section as well as sugar maple-basswood cover type (SAF 26) and white oak-black oak-northern red oak cover type (SAF 52) all of which were found were found either adjacent to this forest or within two-thirds of a mile upstream from it. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy stage of phenology.

87. Bitter buds- Three examples of bitternut or pignut hickory twigs (C. cordiformis), including sulphur-colored buds, in winter phase. This is the only species of Carya (at least in the Ozarks and, probably, North America) that has buds with the color of sulfur or bright buckskin (Kurz, 2003, p. 80). Buds of this species also have a "pinched" or "squeezed" appearance often with an upswept orientation. Buds of C. cordiformis are considerably smaller than those of C. tomentosa with which it sometimes grows in close proximity (as on this stream bank) and, while generally of the same relative size as those of C. texana, easily distinguished from this smaller-growing hickory by its one-of-a-kind sulfur-colored buds. These examples were growing on the example trees in the stand on the Modoc Creek tributary presented above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

88. Bunch of bitter nuts- Nuts of bitternut or pignut hickory gathered beneath the trees (and their buds) introduced above growing on the bank of an ephemeral stream draining into Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; ripe fruit stage, but they live up to their name (and the fact that humans would just as soon their hogs fattened on them).

89. Bitter fruits above Modoc Creek- Leaves and hickory nuts of pignut or bitternut hickory on a young tree on a steep slope directly above the channel of a typical stream in the Ozark Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma, fruit-filling stage of phenology.

90. Instructive look- Leaves, characteristic young fruits, and the positive-identifying, sulphur-colored buds of pignut or bitternut hickory. Sutures of the husks or hulls of the immature nuts of Carya cordiformis frequently portrude outward like miniture "wings". This tree was producing fruit along with next year's leaves, catkins, and twigs as primordial tissues as its vote that life should go on. Bear on ole tree. Same organs as introduced in the two immediately preceding slides. Ottawa County, Oklahoma, fruit-filling stage of phenology.

91. Trunk of mockernut or white hickory (Carya tomentosa)- Specimen of mockernut growing on bank of an ephemeral stream that drained into Modoc Creek in western Ozzrk Plateau. This hickory species was much less abundant than pignut or bitternut hickory which was a minor dominant on a western hackberry-elm-white ash tract of forest that was part of a larger bottomland forest that included sycamore, eastern cottonwood, boxelder, chinquapin oak, and black walnut along with the more consistently present climax dominants. Bark of mockernut hickory is noticably smaller and more scalelike in general appearance than that of pignut or bitternut hickory with which it was closely associated in this bottomland forest. The only foolproof distinguishing difference, at least in late autumn through early spring prior to leafing-out are twigs. Both buds and lenticels differ drastically between mockernut and pignut hickories. Proceed to next two sets of slides and then compare back to pingnut twigs shown above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

92. Mockernut twigs- Winter twigs of mockernut or white hickory showing the distinctive lenticels and "tear drop" winter buds, especially the larger terminal buds. Besides being much larger than buds of associated pignut or bitternut hickory and black, Ozark, or Texas hickory (Carya texana) mockernut buds have a unique pattern of longitudinal bud scales as shown in the next three-slide set. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

93. Detail of mockernut twigs- Greater detail of winter buds of mockernutor white hickory. The distinctive elongated lenticels and the longitudinally arranged, prominent bud scales handily distinguish Carya tomentosa from the smaller and less distinctive buds of C. texana two species of which often grow side-by-side on upland forest and savannah range sites with relatively shallow soils in the Ozark Plateau. Mockernut hickory also grows beside pignut or bitternut hickory on bottomland forest sites that have deep, rich alluvial soils (as shown in this section devoted to floodplain and tributary bottomland forests that was also in the Ozark Plateau). In such bottomland forest ranges pignut hickory is quickly distinguished from mockernut (or any other hickory) by its sulfur-colored, "squeezed-in-the-middle" buds (see again above). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

Note on location: twigs of Ozark or black hickory (Carya texana) were included in the chapter, Tallgrass Savanna (under Grasslands) where this was a major (often, dominant) tree species along with mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa). Twigs of C. texana were not included in this section on bottomland because it is not a species of such environments.

94. Mockernuts- A "passel" of hickory nuts, all of mockernut hickory, that had naturally washed into this group following recent heavy rains. This view presented an example of the sometimes "super yields" of hickory fruit possible in "good years". There are, however, many more years when little or even no hickory nuts aae produced. The author did not find any fruit produced by the trees that yielded this bounty for five (5) years prior to this picturesque crop. Buds on these mockernut hickory trees were--as is typical of Carya species in general--an every year source of feed for wildlife ranging from white-tail deer to squirrels. So eat up and savor the moment ye 'beasts of the forest" (including hillbillies because mockernuts are relatively sweet in bitter contrast to those of pignut hickory). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; ripe fruit stage.

95. Mockernut hickory in summer- leaves and young hickory nuts of Carya tomentosa growing in an oak-hickory forest on western ozark Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, fruit-filling stage.

96. Bidding winter and successional farewell- Final view of species composition during early winter of a bottomland forest in the western Ozark Plateau in which western hackberry, the "number one" climax dominant tree species (two leftmost trunks: big trunk in foreground and smaller trunk to left and behind it) was successionally replacing black walnut (four diagonically aligned trunks from right foreground extending to left midground). Most of the smaller (indistinguishable) trees in background were American and slippery elm (return to previous slides in this series for details concerning these two Ulmus species). The most consistent understorey dominant was Canada wildrye. It was the only herbaceous species in the understorey of any consequence, Japanese brome or chess being present only as rare, isolated individuals. Buckbrush and fox or frost grape were the major shrubs, and of two sporadic layers. Canada wildrye, by constrast, was omnipresent comprising a nearly universal layer in this bottomland forest that developed along an ephemeral stream draining into Modoc Creek, an Ozark stream. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January (hibernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

97. Carrying the banner- Canada or nodding wildrye was--as shown and described throughout this section--the dominant and basically the sole species of the hrbaceous layer (the predominant stratum of the understorey)--of a second-growth bottomland forest currently dominated by black walnut, honey locust, and white ash but progressing along its sere to a western hackberry-elm (American and slippery)-white ash climax. Canada wildrye was present as both dormant shoots from last year and new (and very young) shoots of the current cool-growing season. Livestock were never present on this forest range, but white-tail deer as well as cottontail rabbits were abundant throughout and at all seasons. Squirrels, coons, and 'possums also called this tributary forest home, but of course fed only on fruits and buds. One of the interesting differences between this bottomland forest range and the floodplain forest range (treated above), with which it was contiguous and immediately unstream from, was presence as local dominants and, sometimes, associates of silky and Virginia wildrye (Elymus villosa, E. virginica) downstream on deeper alluvial soil versus nodding wildrye (E. canadensis) on higher, shallower, less mesic soil. Also, the herbaceous layer (s) of the floodplain forest was (were) much more diverse in species and structure (see again above). Canada wildrye was presented at level (the photographic scale) of local population in these two slides and at levels of individual plant and individual tiller immediately below. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; all (at least, most) basal leaves stage (four to seven-inch length).

98. A real cool grass- The cool-season, perennial, native grass, Canada or nodding wildrye, was the dominant--indeed, sole species of any consequence--in the herbaceous layer of a bottomland forest on a tributary of Modoc Creek in the Ozark Plateau. Canada wildrye was present in almost every forest community photograph and description presented in this section (above). This species was presented "up close" at scale or level of individual, cespitose plant in these two slides. Canada wildrye was shown at the organizational level (scale) of local population in the immediately preceding set of slides and at level of individual tiller in the succeeding two-slide set. Both current, cool-season shoots and dead, last year's shoots were present on this forest range. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; all (at least, most) basal leaves stage (four to seven- inch length).

99. New growth in winter- Tillers of Canada or nodding wildrye in early winter in the herbaceous layer of a bottomland forest (ephemeral drainage into Modoc Creek, western Ozark Plateau) beneath black walnut and honey locust (Intolerant species) with western hackberry, American elm, and slippery elm in process of achieving domiance. These two slides presented Canada wildrye at photographic scale (plant organizational level) of individual shoot. Scales (organizational levels) of local population and individual plant were presented immediately above as two two-slide sets. Canada wildrye is a strictly cespitose (bunchgrass) species meaning that the only shoots produced by this grass are tillers. These vertical (intravaginated) shoots do, however, grow in a somewhat decumbant form just below the soil surface as they grow away from the base of last year's shoots. That morphology was presented in these two photographs. Both current, cool-season shoots and dead, last year's shoots were present on this forest range. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; all (at least, most) basal leaves stage (four to seven-inch length).

The following series of slides of the ephemeral tributary (wet weather branch) of Modoc Creek presented forest range vegetation in late summer (early to middle of June). In addition to leaves on trees to show another feature of pioneer, dominant, and associate woody species the understorey herbaceous plants were also shown (as best they could be given dense shade) thereby supplying details of major grasses and grasslike plants as well as both structure and species composition of the forest plant community. The first four slide/caption sets showed the lower end of this tributary just as it entered the greater floodplain of Modoc Creek.Subsequent slides gave views of this forest range farther upstream to present the same vegetation shown above in hibernal aspect in its vernal aspect.

100. Up the crick- Climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest on an ephemeral tributary at its entry into the greater floodplain of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Plateau. The first of these two slides showed relatively young (pole-size) trees of hackberry and American or white elm (foreground) which are the climax co-dominants of this bottomland range vegetation. The largest tree (as seen here) in slightly left-of-center midground was hackberry. Clump of trees in background were all pignut or bitternut hickory which essentially had reached peak adult size (at their prime maturity). Behind the pignut was a mockernut hickory. Pignut or bitternut hickory was the major associate though it held dominance in some some local microsites. The second slide showed the large hackberry and the clump of pibnut hickory at closer camera range. These pignut and mockernut hickories were shown above in winter aspect and were treated again (below) in vernal aspect. The herbaceous understorey was dominated by silky wildrye, Canada wildrye, James caric sedge, and Virginia creeper which climbed to the mid-canopy of some trees so as to be in several layers of vegetation. Also in the lower layer of the understorey were numerous seedlings of hackberry, American and, though fewer, slippery or red elm, and pignut hickory. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

101. Farther down the tributary- Where an ephemeral tributary formed a local delta at its narrrow mouth upon entry unto the floodplain of Modoc Creek a climax forest of young (pole-size) hackberry and American or white elm were growing to adulthood with a luxurant herbaceous understorey of both silky and Canada wildrye, James caric sedge, and Virginia creeper. The woody shoots of Virginia creeper were climbing tree trunks and ascending into mid-canopy. There were scattered plants of buckbrush or coralberry (as eeen in lower right corner of first photograph). The foremost sapling (center foreground) in both of these photographs was American elm. The two seedlings in front of this elm sapling (in second slide only) were one Americn elm and one pignut hickory. There were also several even-smaller seedlings of pignut hickory in the second slide. Trees behind and to the left of this elm were three hackberry, one American elm (far right), and a large log-size chinquapin oak (largest trunk in group at right). .The largest trees in left distant background of first slide and left midground of second slide were black walnut (tree at right with remnants of dead lower limb; larger of the two) and chinquapin oak (immediate left of black walnut). These latter two trees were either pioneers or early seral entrants into this forest. Students should pay particular attention to the fact that this is a climax forest as to species composition (of both dominance by the climax dominant tree species an of climax herbaceous species), but structure of the climax forest had not been reached yet because hackberry and American elm were not at old-growth state of maturity. In fact, the climax dominants were still saplings to young poles. So class, how could this be? Simple: it was a second-growth forest that had developed (undergone secondary plant succession) to the climax species composition yet with trees still in sub-adult age/size classes. Herbaceous perennials have only annual aboveground structures (shoots) so that climax species composition and climax structure of the herbaceous layer(s) were the same. Meanwhile long-lived seral tree species like black walnut and black walnut persisted in the climax stage, at least the onset of climax when trees of climax species were still young. Now, see how easy that was. You just have to learn to read vegetation. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

102. Oldsters and youngsters- Old-age trees of seral species and young trees of the climax species with an understorey of climax herbaceous and shrub species on a bank of an ephemeral tributary of an Ozark stream. This was a closer-in view of the old black walnut with its rotten lower limb and a chinquapin oak to the immediate left of the walnut that were introduced in the immediately preceding photographs. The large sapling or small pole in right foreground was a hackberry. Pole-size trees behing this hackberry (midground) were both hackberry and American elm. Understorey was mostly an herbaceous layer consisting of Canada and silky wildrye (both species) and James caric sedge. Virginia creeper joined these graminoids, but it also ascended into the cnopy layer. Two other shrubs were buckbrush or coralberry and Missouri gooseberry (Ribes missouriensis). Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

103. A confusing state of successional affairs- Local assemblage of plant species of different succcessional states in a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest on a bank of an ephemeral tributary into Modoc Creek at western edge of Ozark Plateau. The three largest trees were hackberry, the number one climax dominant. The tree immediately behind them (and barely visible) was American elm. The tree behind and to the right of this elm (far background) was a black walnut. The two straight and barely tapering trunks at far left midground were white ash. The sapling (foremost trunk, in front and to left of the big hackberries was a chinquapin oak. Leaves at far right and upper right corner were those of a pole-size northern red oak. The herbaceous layer was primarily Canada wildrye and some silky wildrye with lesser amounts of James caric sedge. Virginia creeper and buckbrush or coral berry were the two most common shrubs. Missouri gooseberry ranked a distant third. Forbs were not represented. This array of range plant species encompassed a considerable successional span as well as presenting broad botanical diversity from species and family perspectives. Black walnut is this general area (over several forest sites) is pioneer to early seral speceis whereas hackberry and elm are climax dominants. White ash and chinquapin oak more-or-less fall in between these community extremes on the sere. Burns and Honkala (1990) interpreted white ash as a species of "intermediate as well as early stages of natural plant succession". White ash pioneers disturbed, yet fertile, sites (such as cutover bottomland forest like the one described here) and it can survive through on-going forest succession because white ash seedlings and young trees are shade-tolerant. White ash becomes less tolerant with advancing age (hence, increasing size) so that it "is classed overall as intolerant" (Burns and Honkala, 1990). With these silvics, white ash persist into later seral or even climax states.Under some forest conditions white ash is more shade-tolerant than northern red oak (Burns and Honkala, 1990). Consistent with these features was the fact that there were no seedling and very few young white ash in any part of this floodplain forest. Taken in total, the presence of white ash in the vegetation of this bottomland forest in early age climax (species composition but not vegetation structure of climax) made "successional sense". Chinquapin oak is another somewhat "ambiguous" tree species with regard to successional status, but it bears a remarkable similarity to white ash in its silvics. Chinkapin oak is shade-intolerant yet, like white ash, it tolerates shady environments better at younger ages (though it may grow slowly under such conditions) until it eventually developes less tolerance of shade and general competition with advancing age (Burns and Honkala, 1990). This explained presence of older chinquapin oaks but not younger trees of sapling classes in this forest. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

104. Afterall, this is part of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region- Young adult to mature adult trees of American elm, pignut or bitternut hickory, mockernut hickory, and white ash on the bank of an ephemeral stream that drained into a Modoc Creek, a typical perennial Ozark stream. Trees in this "lineup" in both photographs (from left to right; somewhat front to rear) were: American elm (first trunk), pignut hickory (three trunks--only two of which are visible--to immediate right of the elm), mockernut hickory (the siccessive four trunks after pignut hickories), and white ash (two right- and rearmost trunks). In the first of these two slides the three trunks (two smaller than the other) at far left were American elm while the large seedling or small sapling to right of the two ash (far-right midground) was pignut hickory. In the second slide the nice pole-size tree in right midground was also pignut hickory. Braun (1950, p. 34) was careful to explain that although her forest regions where named for the normal or most widespread climax association (an application of the Clementsian concept of association) in each region, there were several climaxes that developed in regions and that taken altogether these (and even seral communities) characterized a specific regions. In addition to the climax association there were edaphic, topographic, etc. climaxes. (Braun [1950, ps. 33-38] actually merged or united the Clementsian monoclimax and Tanslian polyclimax in her classifiction of forests of eastern North America.) By way of example, the Oak-Hickory Forest Region was the center of development of the Oak-Hickory Association so this region was named after or designated by that association. Braun (1950, p. 35). Within the Prairie Peninsula Section of the Oak-Hickory Region Braun (1950, p. 189) recognized and described bottomland forests. Some of the tree species that she listed were walnut, ash elm, hackberry, and honey locust with sycamore, American elm, and cottonwood in lower habitats and the riparian zone. In a paragraph of that page Braun (1950. p.189) described the mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was treated here. Dominance of the canopy layer by two species of hickory certaily indicated that this overall climax hackberry-American elm forest was indeed within the Oak-Hickory Forest Region. The understorey of this bottomland forest was primarily an herbaceous layer comprised of Canada wildrye, silky wildrye, and James caric sedge. Shrubs included Virginia creeper, poison ivy (= poison oak). buckbrush or coralberry, and Missouri gooseberry. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

105. Again, this is part of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region- At a different point of the bank of a tributary (upstream and a less mesic environment) into Modoc Creek another local forest community included old trees of pioneer and seral species being joined with younger (and smaller) trees of climax species. These two photographs showed the same forest range vegetation and the same plants with a closer-in camera distance in the second slide.The foremost tree (left margin) was an aging chinquapin oak with lower dead and rotting limbs. To the right of this chinkapin oak, generally an Intolerant (hence pioneer and early seral) species, was a sapling of American elm, climax co-dominant of this forest community and for this forest site. In center to center-left background were two over-mature honey locusts with much dead material in their crowns (ie. the old-timers were more dead than alive though still very much a part of this forest). To the left of the left honey locust was an American elm sapling. To the right of these honey locust was another large tree which was a box elder. The two large trees with dark-colored trees to right of the box elder (at extreme right margin in the second slide) were black walnut. This is another pioneer tree species that lives long enough to persist into the climax forest in the same manner that sycamore and eastern cottonwood did lower on the floodplain of Modoc Creek (see above discussions). Saplings in the center of these two "photoplots" were a mixture of hackberry and elm. Some of the latter keyed to slippery or red elm so the author interpreted this as a hackberry-elm--and probably more precisely as a hackberry-elm-hickory climax. The understorey of this bottomland forest was primarily an herbaceous layer comprised of Canada wildrye, silky wildrye, and James caric sedge. Shrubs included Virginia creeper, poison ivy (= poison oak). buckbrush or coralberry, Missouri gooseberry, and, in the views shown here, fox or frost grape that had "clumb to the top of the honey locust". These two honey locust served as the focal point for the very next slide-caption as well as some of those presented above. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

The unknown component in the ecological equation of this forest: One of the most profound, detrimental, (and downright sad) impacts of white man on the eastern deciduous forest, including (again, sadly) the Ozark Plateau was inadvertant introduction of Dutch Elm Disease. As a lad this author watched one giant and stately American and slippery elm after the other succumb to this beetle-borne fungal disease 40 to 50 years prior to the period over which these photographs were taken. Elm phloem necrosis in another disease common throughout the Ozark Region that kills elms, many of them huge beloved shade trees as well as those of field and forest. Phloem necrosis appears to be less prevalent (and only slightly slower to kill elms) in the Ozarks. For whatever reasons, American or white and slippery or red elms in Ozark forests are much less apt to be stricken by either of these dreaded tree diseases. This is a personal observation on the author's part and without any quantiative data to back up his assertion. It is still a fact. The reason for this phenomenon was unknown to this observer, but it was the case that American and slippery elms that stood by themselves in yards, pastures, roadsides, field edges (ie. isolated trees, trees not in forests) were taken out at a much faster rate and at a higher percentage of total trees killed than those that were intermixed with other tree species. For example, isolated elms in yards, fencerows, and pastures within a quarter- to half-mile radius of elms in the bottomland forest described here were killed a half century ago while slightly smaller though--also old--elms in the floodplain of Modoc Creek were still alive. Perhaps trees in forest were less likely to be found and used for feeding by American elm-bark beetles (Hylurgopinus rufipes), the principal vector of Dutch elm disease. Or, maybe, beetles feed only on larger trees so that when elm seedlings, saplings, and poles in the Modoc Creek forest reach adult size they will also be killed. Whatever the explanation, the final outcome of these two dreaded elm diseases on forests in which American and slippery elms are major species remains unknown. Also unknown is what impact substantial loss of elm species would have on the ultimate climax (or, disclimax) forest. Would it become a hackberry-pignut hickory or a hackberry-pignut hickory-box elder forest? Perhaps it will remain a hackberry-elm climax, but of elms that never reach adult dimensions due to beetle feeding and transmission of Dutch Elm Disease. Even in some of the areas within the Ozark Plateau that were hardest-hit by elm diseases there are enough sexually mature American and slippery elms to replinish these species. There has not been enough time passed for these young trees to reach their mature sizes and, in point of fact, many of these are killed by diseases, especially Dutch Elm Disease, by the time trees are roughly "half-grown". Again, however, most of these are isolated trees not those in dense forests. At this time such observations continue to raise the question as to whether elms can remain undetected long enough to reach monster size, or if this can occur only in forests.

106. Climax newcommers join a pioneer veteran (some from both recent and earlier times)- Farther upstream on the same bank of the ephemeral branch of Modoc Creek the overall habitat and local habitats (microhabitats) were noticeably drier than the environments farther downstream and at the mouth of the branch that was presented above. On the xeric (less mesic) environments tree reproduction was proportionately greater for pignut hickory than for hackberry and American elm. Regeneration of northern red oak also was apparently more upstream than on downstream banks of this ephemeral barnch. Herbaceous dominants were the same as downstream: Canada wildrye, silky wildrye, and James caric sedge. The most abundant shrub in this scene was buckbrush or coralberry. There was also appreciable cover of Virginia creeper, but on ths "photosample" of vegetation the latter was the associate species. There were even a few large plants (in background) of Missouri gooseberry. Most conspicuous in this local assembly of mixed hardwood bottomland forest were two senescing honey locusts with fox grape climbing into their dying crowns. These two aging, "over-ripe" honey locusts and the fox grape were shown in photographs above during winter (hibernal aspect). One of those slides was taken from this same photo-point (at a slightly closer distance) and two other slides showed the honey locusts and adjacent vegetation from the opposite direction. Honey locust is a pioneer tree species on disturbed land of this and similar range sites such as old fields ("go-back ground"). Wenger (1984, ps. 2-3) gave a tolerance rating for honey locust of Intolerant indicting from landowners in this area know all too well: honey locust invades--often, aggressively--abandoned fields, cutover land, and overgrazed pastures. These two old-growth trees had obviously established themselves on this second-growth forest shortly after the former forest had been logged which had been at least three-quarters of a century earlier. Braun (1950, p. 189) listed honey locust as a tree species characteristic of floodplain and bottomland forest in the Oak-Hickory Region to which this forest vegetaion belonged. The trunk of the live tree to immediate left of the honey locusts was hackberry while the trunk behind this hackberry was that of an American elm that had died and fallen over on the honey locusts. The two trees at far right (smaller pole-size at left; larger yound adult at right margin) were American elm. Sapling at left margin was American elm (northern red oak in front of it). Seedlings in the foreground were pignut hickory center, immediate foreground), American elm (right foreground), and northern red oak (left foreground). in that relative order of apparent cover and density. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

A study of the understorey-The following sequence of slides and their captions dealt with the grazable-browseable layers of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest in the western Ozark (Spriungfield) Plateau that developed on an ephemeral stream functioning as a tributary into the main channel of a perennial stream, Modoc Creek. The understorey was treated with emphasis because this publication was devoted to range types and, in particular, the feed resoures of such natural pastures. The lower layers of this portion of the bottomland forest was somewhat different from that of the forest range vegetation that developed on the floodplain of Modoc Creek which was at slightly lower elevations.

107. Turf by trunks- Floor of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest on an ephemeral branch of a perennial stream in western Ozark Plateau. Canada and/or silky wildrye with James' caric sedge at bases of a black walnut (left) and chinquapin oak (right) filled this "photoquadrant" to show the herbaceous dominants and two associate tree species of what was apparently the potential natural range vegetation for this mesic forest site. These two tree species were most likely pioneers (certainly early seral colonizers) that due to long life spans persisted into the early climax ( a forest with species composition, but not old-growth structure of the climax). The herbaceous species as well as those of woody vines were adapted to the shady forest floor and sun flecks that were a key environmental factor. (Note sun flecks in this photograph.) Some Elymus plants keyed to E. canadensis while other individuals keyed to E. villosus, plus still yet other plants appeared to be E.canadensis X E. villosus hybrids. However it was, both of these Elymus species are also adapted to growing and reproducing in full sun as, for example, beside dominant tallgrass species such as big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) on nearly adjacent tallgrass prairies . By contrast James' caric sedge appeared to be restricted to the densely shaded florest floor of well-drained soils on this upstream tributary whereas Davis' caric sedge was found only on the bank of the lower floodplain and bank of the channel of the main stream. Neither of these Carex species was ever found within the general area of the western Ozarks except in densely shaded microhabitats. C. jamesii and C. davisii were never found growing together, but instead were segregated according to location, soil drainage, and even presence of certain tree species. For example sycamore and C. davisii often grew in association (close proximity) whereas C. jamesii was never seen to grow beneath (or even near) sycamore, a tree which grew only on the floodplain of this forest. From the perspective of the most practical management this range plant community was an edaphic and/or topographic climax viewed in Tansley's polyclimax theory and, probably, Whittaker's climax pattern theory. From monoclimax interpretation this forest vegetation was postclimax within the Oak-Hickory Association of Weaver and Clements (1938, 514-516). Braun (1950, p. 189) regarded bottomland forests like this as being wthin the Prairie Peninsula Section of the Oak-Hickory Region. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

108. Lower-layer dwellers all together- The two lower layers (herbaceous and woody) of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest immediately above the floodplain of an Ozark Plateau perennial stream. The herbaceous zone was comprised of graminoids (Canada wildrye, silky wildrye, James' caric sedge) and no forbs. The lowest woody layer consisted of shoot bases of Virginia creeper along with seedlings of pignut hickory (locally most abundant), American elm, and hackberry. The latter two of these tree species were dominants and pignut or bitternut hickory was the associate of the canopy layer of this climax forest. On this forest range site these three trees were generally of Tolerant (or higher) tolerance ranking. On this higher-elevation portion of the bottomland forest Virginia creeper was the overall most common shrub with highest apparent cover among the lianas which also included (at other locations in this forest) fox grape, poison ivy, and trumpet creeper. In this "photoplot" (and the one shown in the next slide) Virginia creeper was the only shrub species associated with seedlings of climax trees and the climax herbaceous species. Like the other woody vines Virginia creeper extended through all layers of the forest vegetation. It was, however, the only shrub species at maturity to still have its lower leaves intermixed with those of herbaceous species. For example, adult plants of fox grape and poison ivy had their lowest leaves many feet (say, about 10 or 12 or more) above ground level, often beginning just below the lower limbs of mature trees. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

109. Grasslike plant and sort-of-a shrub in the lower layer- Several cespitose plants of James' caric sedge and basal leaves of Virginia creeper made up all of the lower layer of vascular plants in a climax hackberry-American elm bottomland forest. (Pignut hickory was the local associate to even dominant tree species at this forest location.) This species combination--usually with Canada wildrye and/or silky wildrye as herbaceous co-dominants--was characteristic of the lowest vegetational layer on an ephemeral stream branch immediately above the floodplain of an Ozark Plateau perennial stream. This "photoplot" preented a closer-in, more detailed view than the "photoplot" shown immediately above which, at greater camera distance, showded more area and more range plant species (including the two wildryes). The herbaceous layer of forest vegetation presented here featured presence of lower leaves of Virginia creeper as a companion species to herbaceous plants. Even mature plants of Virginia creeper had their basal leaves intermixed with grasses and caric sedge whereas lowermost leaves of other lianas like fox grape and poison oak where high up on trunks of trees typically beginning just below lower levels of tree crowns. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

110. What the future seems to be- The future composition of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest just above the immediate floodplain of a perennial stream in the Springfield Plateau was suggested by seedlings of tree species represented in this lowest layer of vascular plants. Here along with James' caric sedge, Canada wildrye, and silky wildrye (climax herbaceous species) were seedlings of pignut or bitternut hickory, hackberry, chinquapin oak, and American elm (in that relative order based on apparent cover and density). Chinquapin oak has usually been interpreted as Intolerant and thereby a pioneer or early seral tree species (Burns and Honkala, 1990). It was discussed above that presence of sexual reproduction in chinquapin oak added an element of ambiguity to the pattern of plant succession and forest development on this forest site. The other three tree species were viewed by Burns and Honkala (1990)as as being about Intermediate in tolerance rating with a degree of uncertainity. More specific evaluations of hackberry (and sugarberry) and elm species on bottomland forests (Diamond et al. 1987; Diamond 1993; Hoagland (2000) ) strongly suggest that these are the climax dominants of floodplain forest types. Thus, lowest cover and number of American elm seedlings was also inconsistent with the basic pattern of succession throughout the overall entirity of this bottomland forest. Viewers should bear in mind that to get a photograph with tree seedlings large enough to be recognized the area photographed had to be quite small in size and restricted (limited) in location. Length (longest dimension) of this "photoquadrant" was less than four feet: not a large enough size to fortoituously find the exact composite mix of range plants for the average of the forest. Such samples that varied slightly from the arithmetic average were still common and within the realm of being representative. In other words students, do not jump to the conclusion that the individualistic view of the plant community carefully and skillfully proposed by Henry Gleason (1917, 1926) was verified by this roughly four foot by two and a half foot plot. Neither is this to imply that the Gleasonian view of plant communities is without some merit or that chance occurrence (current presence) of parent plants is not determinative (or largely so) in initial stages or final outcome of forest composition. Quite the contrary: it was in this instance. Presence of specific, climax tree species at specific locations appeared to be the major variable that determined which species dominated (= made up most of) the tree seedling component layer. Go to the next two sets of slides and captions for more of this compelling finding. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

111. Pignuts in all layers (or indicators of climax)- Portion of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest on which pignut hickory dominated all tree layers from seedling through sapling to pole, and, ultimally, adult trees. The two large trunks with a fallen branch between them were mature pignut hickory. (The two large trunks at far right margin in the second photograph were white ash.) Given that pignut hickory was the local dominant tree species with the largest adult trees on this microsite and the species that produces the largest fruit it would seem logical to expect most younger trees to also be pignut hickory. This was not necessarily the situation. Ecology is biological not logical. The light-weight, wind-borne samaras of American and slippery elm were readily dispersed to "'every nook and cranny" of this forest range. The heavier yet also small fruit of hackberry, a drupe, was also dispersed widely. Even the bulky, heavy nuts of pignut hickory were not wholly dependent on gravity for dispersion. This bottomland forest abounded in squirrels, white-tailed deer, and eastern wild turkey all of which eat and disperse hickory nuts. Finally, even though this ephemeral stream bank was slightly higher than the floodplain of the main stream channel, local seasonal flooding permitted water to be yet another agent of seed dispersal. In final analysis, then, immediate proximity of adult pignut hickories to seedlings, saplings, and poles of this same species was not necessarily the determinate (at least not the only) variable in recruitment of pigunut hickory into the climax forest vegetation. Dominant herbaceous species were graminoids: silky wildrye, Canada wildrye, and James' caric sedge. There were no forbs to speak of. Shrubs included Virginia creeper, the local dominant shrub, poison oak or poison ivy, buckbrush or coralberry, Missouri gooseberry. This forest range community was on the greater bank of an ephemeral stream that served as a branch to a perennial stream such that this range vegetation differed slightly from that on the lower floodplain of this stream system. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

112. All together, but not by themselves- Details of a climax mixed hardwood bottomland forest on which pignut or bitternut hickory was the dominant tree species by having greatest cover and density of trees from seedling- to sapling- and up through pole-size classes. In the overall forest covered in this section pignut hickory was the associate while hackberry and American elm were dominants. In "photoplots" seen immediately above American elm exhibited considerably lower sexual regeneration. In this current "photoplot" American elm "got back in the game" of future climax forest by having the second greatest rate of sexual reproduction. Other important forest plant species included Canada wildrye, silky wildrye, and James' caric sedge as dominant herbaceous species with prominence of particular species varying by microsite. The dominant shrub was Virginia creeper, a sort-of (relatively small) liana or woody vine. Tributary of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June (vernal aspect). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm- Green Ash). Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.1, in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community Brown et al (1998, p. 43). Mesic Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

113. Dominant grasslike plant on less mesic habitats- On the prominent bank of a tributary into Modoc Creek the bottomland forest had a different species coposition (though similar structure) than that of the lower bottomland forest that developed on the primary floodplain of this Ozark stream. On this higher forest site Carex jamesii replaced Davis' caric sedge (Carex davisii), the major Carex species on the floodplain forest (shown below). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.

114. James caric sedge- Several plants of Carex jamesii at full shoot development stage (peak standing crop) on the upper bank of a tributary into Modoc Creek in the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. This sedge species was co-dominant with silky and/or Canada wildrye (see discussion of Elymus sp(p). above). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.

115. A college try- At least an attempt was made to show details (including miniscule sexual shoot) of James caric sedge, the dominant grasslike plant on bank of a tributary into Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.

116. Tiny but ready to go- Current season's sexual shoot of James caric sedge that just senesced at peak standing crop and on-coming shoot dormancy. This shoot was lying on a shed leaf of sycamore. (Nice effect I thought.) Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Mid-June.

Important specification: the foregoing discussion of bottomland forests represented Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) cover types 93 (sugarberry-American elm-green ash) and/or 94 (sycamore-sweetgum-American elm) or some combination thereof. While these dominance types are unquestionably bottomland forests some--if not all--of these species can also be dominats on some highly favorable upland sites as well as on local or isolated habitats. For example, in the same area (within a half mile radius) of the Modoc Creek floodplain forest just discussed hackberry, American elm, slippery elm, white ash, and even sycamore grow to large size in fencerows, field corners, and other protected small areas. With spread of the dreaded Dutch Elm Disease large elm trees are not as abundant as prior to this epidemic. Nonetheless, trees of largest size in such protected and favorable haitats in the Ozark Plateau and eastern Osage Plains are typically those just named along with black cherry (Prunus serotina). Loss of natural and aboriginal fires has unquestionably been a major factor is this vegetational pattern. Regardless, there are tracts--usually small and local in spatial scale--of forest or prairie woodland where hackberry, elm, and even sycamore on upland forest sites form the climatic (or, perhaps,edaphic) climax vegetation. At least such forest vegetation is climatic climax if one disregards-- momentarily, arbitrarily and for purposes of argument--natural fire which is, of course, a function of climatic (ie. long-term atmospheric phenomenon). A short treatment of such forest ran ge vegetation was presented immediately below. In this example honey locust, the pioneering or colonizing tree species persist throughout the sere until it is replaced by hackberry and American elm.as the climax dominants. Units of climax vegetation were not obvious so such units were not provided. It was deemed that the pattern of forest succession was the lessor for this short session.

117. Had their moment in the sun- Snags of honey locust that lived their lives long enough to see their kind being replaced by climax American elm (at least if and until Dutch Elm Disease claims them). This example of tree species succession was along a spring that fed into the tributary of Modoc Creek that was just described. The understorey included 1) an herbaceous layer dominated by silky wildrye with broomsedge bluestem, wild bergamot or purple beebalm (Monarda fistulosa), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifolia), and common evening-primrose (Oenothera biennis) and 2) a shrub layer that consisted of buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) and poison ivy/oak. In addition there was a lower tree layer (that was still at height of tall shrub) comprised of hackberry seedlings and small saplings which would--if not disturbed by man--grow into mature trees to co-dominant with American elm. This local area had been dozed and graded with a county road backsloping and fenceline clearing operation about 60 years prior to time of photographs. It was on this "new land" (cleared ground along the fenceline) that the seedlings of the pioneer species, honey locust, had colonized. They had lived out their normal comparatively short life cycle. There were some neighboring, adult honey locust trees (just to the right of these two photographs) growing along this same old fenceline that were larger (though probably no older). They were still in their "natural prime" and preented in the immediately following slide. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

118. Armed and unarmed- Lower trunks of two adult honey locust growing in a fencerow along a spring that drained into the Modoc Creek tributary treated above. The tree on the left was a thorned genotype (G. triacanthos var. triacanthos) whereas the tree on the right was a thornless honey locust (G. triacanthos var. inermis) The traits of thornless and thorned in honey locust were noted by numerous workers over the years. It appears that these genetic characters are not straightforward Mendelian traits. Santamour and McArdie (1983) remarked that the thornless feature is a sexually inherited trait and that recognizing thornless honey locust as a . distinctive taxonomic entity was of questionable legitimacy. Given drought tolerance, rapid growth (at least over course of a relatively short lifespan), and picturesque morphology of honey locust plant breeders have developed numerous cultivars of the native woody legume. These trees and associated range vegetation (next paragraph) developed over course of roughly 60 years following backsloping by county owned and operated equipment. These two honey locusts pioneered the scraped land surface and over a half century expired before hackberry and American elm became widely established. Neighboring honey locust trees of this same approximate age (immediately to the left of this vertical camera range and shown in the two preceding slides) had already died. The author readily established age of these trees because as a school boy he walked along the county road bordering this fence row within three or four years of backsloping and new fence construction. (The photographer has continued to walk this road periodically since that time and has watched the redevelopment (recovery) of range vegetation over course of his 60 plus years lifetime.) The liana (woody vine) growing between the two trees and upward on the throned trunk was possum grape (The lower woody shoots were buckbrush or coralberry. The several conspicuous small saplings or large seedlings were hackberry, the ultimate tree species that will become the climax co-dominant (with American elm)--unless of course man and his taxpayer-subsidized bulldozers and roadgraders backslope this fencerow again. This camera view did not include the herbaceous layer of the understorey. That layer of the range plant community was descriped in the immediately preceding caption. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

119. An older patch and the same story- An isolated patch of woodland of approximately two acres in winter aspect that had developed in an old crop field ("go-back land"), the virgin vegettion of which had a big bluestem-Indiangrass tallgrass prairie here in the far western edge of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. The origin of this woody plant community was unknown to the author (or any living human), but the author rented and ran beef cattle on this land 45 years prior to time of this and the next five photographs (this and the next three slide-caption sets). Over the more than half century that the author was aware of this spot of Earth the vegetation consisted of a few honey locust and some black locust (Robinia psuedoacacia) trees within a population of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and briars (Rubus sp.) the latter of which never produced a decent rop of blackberries. That plant community was at the edge of abandoned farmland (mostly dent corn and winter wheat). Broomsedge and briars comprised the ubiquitous vegetation on such "go-back ground" across much of this Ozark-Cherokee Prairie Region. (A decent place to hunt rabbits was about the most complimentary comment one could offer for such plant life.) For whatever reason the strongly rhizomatous black locust gradually died. Their passing was followed about a quarter cnetury later by death of the larger honey locusts (the largest of which was featured shortly below). All the dead trees--starkly conspicuous by their lost bark--seen here were honey locust. The live trees that were their "replacements" were all hackberry (smaller leafeless trees of sapling to pole size) except for prominent (needle-bearing) seedlings of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) that were growing to right and/or behind the angiosperms. There was very limited herbaceous growth it being overwhelmed by the lower woody (shrub) layer that consisted almost exclusively of buckbrush or coral except for a few plants of the dreadfully invasive, exotic multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

120. From honey locust to hackberry- On a local patch of woodland surrounded by recovering vegetation of an old field ("go-back ground") pioneering seedlings of honey locust that grew into adult trees were being replaced by hackberry, a climax dominant tree species on such forest sites. There were no other tree species on this sere the tree species sequence of which was honey locust then hackberry. Likewise, the understorey was alomst exclusively buckbrush or coralberry which established on the seral understorey of broomsedge bluestem and blackberry briars. For all practical purposes there were no plants of herbaceous species except for a few individual patches of Japanese chess or Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus) and these were so rare as to be of no consequence. Hackberry plants were all larger saplings to small poles. These slides were taken in the winter aspect so that smaller saplings and seedlings of hackberry were not conspicuous. Nonetheless, most plants of Celtis occidentalis were saplings and poles. An example of pole-size hackberry was the foremost tree in the second of these two slides. There were two dead honey locusts in far mid-ground of the first photograph, one consisting of a single trunk (inches DBH) and the other comprised of four trunks. The latter was the only honey locust in the second photograph. This four-trunk honey locust tree was featured in two slides below. The one-trunk honey locust was included in the next one-slide and caption set. Next slide, please. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

121. No doubt as to the next regime- Hackberry or western hackberry ranging in size from small saplings to poles formed the exclusive tree species in an isolated woodland situated within an old field as seen in winter aspect. One large (and "very dead") honey locust tree (right midground) with a DBH 25 inches of served as the sole remaining evidence (in this photograph) of the previous dominant woody species in this local stand. The surrounding "go-back land" had been cropped for decades following breaking the virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem and Indiangrass. Broomsedge bluestem and blackberry comprised the understorey beneath the living honey locust. Gradually under the shade of the honey locust and a few smaller and younger hackberry trees buckbrush or coralberry succeeded the broomsedge and blackberry until this low shrub formed the exclusive underlayer of this recovering plant community. Distinctive knobby bark of hackberry was evident in the foremost trunk at far left. Hackberry appeared to be on its way to becoming the climax sole dominant of this isolated tract or woodland or forest. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

122. Impressive even in death-Large dead honey locust consisting of four boles with DBHs of 17, 17, 16, and 15 inches. The photographer had rented this land and ran cattle on it for 15 years beginning about 45 years prior to time of photographs. At that time this tree was growing at the edge of an old field ("go-back ground") "carved out of" a former tallgrass prairie. Following cropping (dent corn and winter wheat) for decades the farmland was abandoned and supported a primary forage crop of Johnsongrass (Sorghum halapense). Just beyond the former farmland honey locust and some black locust formed a woodland with an understorey made up of broomsedge bluestem and blackberry. It appeared as if the plant community of honey locust, black locust, broomsedge, and blackberry had been part of the cropland that had been abandoned before that larger part of the field which supported Johnsongrass (ie the woodland was the outer edge of the farmland) and had been undergoing secondary succession for some years prior to abandonment of the rest of the field. Preceding photographs showed on-going replacement of large and dead honey locust by hackberry. Several of these large sapling to pole-sized hackberries were visible in both of these shots. The second slide provided a closer-in perspective of the four trunks of the dead honey locust. In this second slide the smaller trunk in the "gunsight" view created by these four boles (and to the rear of them) was a hackberry. There was a low shrub layer made up exclusively of buckbrush or coralberry that formed the understorey of this range plant community. Herbaceous plants were for all practical purposes absent. Visible (barey) in background of the second slide were several large sedlings of eastern red cedar. Cessation of natural prairie fires had permitted establishment of this sole coniferous species. For that matter, loss of the historic fire regime was quite likely responsible for establishment of this woodland or forest community to begin with. Tillage of land was one factor responsible for disappearance of fire as a natural climatic phenomenon and disturbance that retarded development of woody vegetation on this former tallgrass prairie in the extrme western edge of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late December; winter dormancy.

123. American elm (Ulmus americana) in full-fruit- Twigs of American elm bearing bountiful fruit. The fruit type in elms is a samara which is a winged achene or, more specifically, a dry, indehiscent, single-seeded fruit fitted with a prominent wing (Smith, 1977, ps. 66, 90, 307). Most elm species have the season of their sexual reproduction "backassards" compared to most other angiosperms. Both American and slippery elm bear fruit before leafing out in the spring. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. March.

124. Comparison of two major elm species- Distinction between American or, sometimes, white elm and slippery or red elm-- especially in young trees--is difficult (and not always correct even by "experts"). This can be a perplexing and frustrating problem in forests where both species are found (often trunk-by-trunk) such as on the bottomland forest discussed here and the sugar maple-bitternut hickory foresst covered previously. There is one brief period, however, when identification and separation of these two species is "a chinch". When these two species are in fruit (for ever so brief a time) they can be distinguished instantly by the distinctively different features of their samaras. The first of these two photographs was a comparison of twigs heavily loaded with samars. In this first slide the twig of red or slippery elm was on top while that of American or white elm was on the bottom. These were typical spring twigs with the classic differences between these two species quite evident. The samaras of slippery elm are noticeably larger and the wings are "wavy" or "crinkled". By contrast samaras of American elm are smaller with more-less "flat" wings. The buds of red or slippery elm are covered with orangish-red (dull rust-colored) short hairs and at time of opening these reddish buds are much smaller (often less than half the size) of American elm which often have an elongated appearance (visible here). The second photograph was a comparison of samaras of these two species. The smaller samara on the left was American elm and the larger samara with the "wavy" wing on the right was that of slippery or red elm. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. March.

125. Slippery elm sample- Three-year-old seedling of slippery or red elm just entering its third growing season. Gives an indication of growth rate possible under favorable growing conditions (start of third wet spring-summer growing season). Characteristic leaves presented in second shot. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

126. Leaves and fruit of the big oak in these bottoms- Chinquapin oak (Quercus muhlenbergia) was the only oak of consequence in the bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of Modoc Creek. An example of leaves and ripe acorns was included to represent this tree species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. October; fruit-shedding stage.

127. Woody climber in the bottoms- Fox, frost, or chicken grape (Vitis vulpina) in the western hackberry-elm (mostly American; some slippery)-white ash- boxelder (with persistent sycamore and eastern cottonwood) bottomland forest in the floodplain of Modoc Creek. This liana was brought to ground by the ice storm treated above which facilitated its visual reproduction here. This grape was growing in the forest gap described previously in various stages of growth and recovery Terminal portions of this woody shoot subsequently began the plant's ascent back into the forest canopy (but not before it left a contribution to educational of the next generation of rangemen, foresters, and wildlifers. Frost or fox (the literaal interpretation of vulpina) grape is one of the more common Vitis species in the Ozark Plateau as well as on this particular bottonlamd forest in the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Region. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May; peak bloom phenological stage.

128. Foxy flowers- Leaves and flower cluster of the plant of fox grape in bottomland hardwood forest that was shown in the preceding photograph. Details of the inflorescence in second photograph. This woods-walking author has observed blooming fox grape over the decades, but only seldom found fruit produced. Sexual reproduction by any of the wild grape species is not particularily successful, at least not in the western Ozark Plateau. Return trips by the photographer to this location showed a complete "crop failure" of this particular flower cluster on this grape vine. All was not lost however: the sexual scene was reproduced and preserved for continuing education of viewers and would-be hillbillies. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May; peak bloom phenological stage

Observational note: There are comparatively few publications devoted to forest forbs (per se) in the eastern deciduous forests. This contrasted to treatment devoted forbs in the Western Range Region. The serious student is left to rumage through "wild flower" field guides and related lay publications. Fortunately some of these are very good. Two such books that were especially relevant for forests of the Ozark Plateau Region were Denison (1989) and Kurz (1999).

129. Joe Pye weed on the bottomland- Portion of a local colongy of sweet, purple, purple-jointed, or green-stemed Joe Pye weed (Eupatorium purpureum), a composite of tribe Eupatorieae, growing on a bottomland Ozark Plateau forest. This forest on the floodplain of Modoc Creek had the species composition of a climax forest being dominated by hackberry or western hackberry and American elm (with some slippery elm) along with old-growth individuals of sycamore and eastern cottonwood that had pioneered this forest sere. This large composite was a local dominant during much of the warm-growing season. Obviously, sweet or green-stemed Joe Pye weed is adapted--in fact, thrives in--shade. This species was a local dominant of the taller of two layers of herbaceous vegetation. The lower layer was mostly limited to early spring (before trees become fully leafed-out), but purple-jointed Joe Pye weed and three species of nettle (shown below) formed local, tall layers of herbaceous plants. All of these forb species formed local colonies from which other species were excluded. Apparently, microsite or "luck" (original or initial presence of plant species) was determinative as to which forbs grew where in this climax bottomland forest. Eupatorium species are known variously as thoroughwort, boneset, Joe Pye weed, and, even for select species, wild ageratum. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, most shoots were at full-bloom stage of phenology..

130. One Joe Pye weed- A single plant of sweet, purple-jointed, or green-stemed Joe Pye weed standing on outskirts of a colony of this species presented morphological and other key features of this composite species that is well-adapted to the "deep, dark woods" of bottomland forests. Pole-sized tree in left background was hackberry, one of two climax dominant tree species. Liana was that of summer grape. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, full bloom phenological stage..

131. Ready, set, flower- Two stages in sexual reproduction in green-stemed, purple, or purple-jointed Joe Pye weed. First photograph was of immediate pre-bloom with the infloresecence "fixing" to emerge. Second photograph was the full-bloom stage of the forest floor-dwelling composite. These plants were growing as part of a colony in the dark understorey of an Ozark bottomland forest of climax species composition in which western hackberry and American elm (some slippery elm) were the natural dominant tree species. There were several large (old-growth) trees of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and chinquapin oak which had been pioneers (at least members of early seral stages if not colonizers) on this land when it was along the bank of an Ozark Plateau stream (Modoc Creek). Over time Modoc Creek changed its course so that the land occupied by most of this forest became farther removed from the previous channel and part of the creek's greater floodplain. This is a beautiful forb that would appear to have great value as an ornamental, horticultural wild flower for those who enjoy landscaping with native plant species.It is obviously well-adapted to "deep shade". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

132. Ornate cluster- The showy inflorescence of sweet, purple-jointed, or green-stemed Joe Pye weed in understorey of a mesic bottomland forest with the species composition of a climax hackberry and American (some slippery) elm-dominated range plant community. There were several old-growth specimens of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, and chinquapin oak that still commanded much of the canopy of this forest. These species had colonized this sere (or arrived early in the seral sequence) and persisted into the climax forest through their long life and "good fortune". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

133. Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum)- In early spring the herbaceous vegetation of the climax, hackberry-American elm-sycamore bottomland forest typically consists of a single layer the height of which seldom extends far above the forest floor. In the mesic bottomland forest that developed along Modoc Creek this early vernal herbaceous layer was dominated by two species of Hydrophyllum which is the namesake species of the Hydrophyllaceae or waterleaf family. The more common of these species was H. virginianum commonly known as Virginia waterleaf. This author could not detect any sign of herbivory on either of these species other than nector and/or pollen feeding by bees. It followed that waterleaf species were locally valuable bee plants. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

134. Virginia waterleaf at closer and close range- Virginia waterleaf with the only animal species seen by this author to interact with waterleaf being a few insects, including the common bumplebee (Bombus americanus). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. First photograph taken in April; seocnd photograph taken in May.

135. Bigleaf waterleaf (Hydrophyllum canadense)- This was the larger (and less common) of two Hydrophyllum species which together comprised the vast bulk and cover of the early vernal herbaceous layer in the climax, mesic, bottomland forest (Nelson, 2005, ps. 147-150) that was a hackberry-American elm-sycamore cover type, an Ozark Plateau variant of SAF 93 (Eyre, 1980, p. 65). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May; peak-bloom stage.

11095 and 11096.

Its own family- Lopseed (Pharma leptostachya) "down deep" on the floor of a mixed-hardwood bottomland forest. This species was associated with Virginia waterleaf, bigleaf waterleaf, purple-jointed Joe Pye weed, Davis' caric sedge (Carex davisii), Canada wildrye, and silky wildrye in the herbaceous layer of this botanically rich forest range. Pharma is the sole genus of the lopseed family (Phrymaceae), and P. leptostachya is the single species of this genus in North America (Fernald, 1950, p. 1313). This truly is a unique plant that added all the more to the biological diversity of this forest type. Floodplain of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July (exceptional drought and severely drought-stressed plant).

136. Rose family forb- White avens (Geum canadense) at base of half-century old black walnut on an Ozark Plateau botomland forest. Detail of leaf and arrangement of flowers on ssexual shoot of white avens (second slide). This is an interesting forest forb in that it is commonplace in shaded understories that vary from virgin or old-growth forest to disturbed areas in yards and gardens. Kurz (199, p.48) commented that leaves of white avens are grazed by white-tailed deer while seeds provide a feed source for forest birds. Rosaceae, the rose family, is generally more important and better known for being the single most important family of browse plants, but the family also boast of a few notewoerthy range forbs. White avens is one of these. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, peak-bloom stage.

137. Tiny flower on large forb- The individual inflorescence of white avens as well as the entire group of these flowers is small compared to size of its stem and shaply leaves. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early July, peak-bloom stage.

There were three species of the Urticaceae, nettle family, that at local scale were dominants of the summer herbaceous layer of the understorey of this hackberry-elm bottomland forest. Individuals of all three species have stinging hairs that canse a burning and/or itching sensation when they come into contact with human skin. As these species often form colonies of considerable size their presence in the woods presents problems to humans stupid enough to go into forest wearing short sleeves, short pants, and other inappropriate clothing. All three species are monoecious with separate male and female flower clusters near apex of their shoots. It is doubtful that any of these three species provided forage to grazing animals. These three nettle species were included because they were native species that were local dominants of this forest range type.

138. Colony of wood nettle (Laportea canadensis)- Portion of an extensive colony of wood nettle in the hackberry-American elm-sycamore bottomland forest described here. Shoots of these plants ranged in height from two to almost four feet in height. Wood nettle was a local dominant of the taller portion of the herbaceous understorey. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

139. Close, but don't get too close- Details of shoots, including inflorescence, of wood nettle. This is the most skin-irritating member of the nettle family to grow on the climax hackberry-American elm bottomland in the Springfield Plateau of the Ozark Highlands region. The smaller inflorescences at tip of shoots were staminate clusters while the lower and larger floral clusters were the pistillate inflorescence. Pubescence of this species include stinging or poison hairs that can be painfully irritating to careless woods walkers. It is, however, an attractive and interesting forest forb as well as a locally dominant species of the understorey. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. First of these two photographs taken in September; second photograph taken in August.

140. Prime females and withered males- Details of the past-its-prime, staminate flower cluster (top; tip of shoot) and the height-of- sexual-reproduction, pistillate inflorescence (rest of shoot) in wood nettle. This was one of many shoots in the colony of this species presented above. Apparently there are no vertebrate feeders on this mechanically injurious forest range plant.of phenology t Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September; peak bloom and early fruit-set stages of phenology.

141. Shoot at fruit time- Upper portion of a shoot of wood nettle with young fruit developing in the pistillate inflorescence. This plant (shoot) was one of many in the colony presented above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September; ripening fruit.

142. Slender nettle (Urtica gracilis= Urtica dioica ssp. gracilis )- A second species in the nettle family that formed extensive colonies and was a local dominant forest range forb in the climax hackberry-American elm-sycamore bottomland forest described herein. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

143. Shoot of slender nettle- Detail of one of the shoots in the colony of Urtica dioica ssp. gracilis shown above that was growing on the climax bottomland forest on floodplain of Modoc Creek. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September.

144. The third Urticaceae species in bottomland forest- The third species of nettle in the hackberry-American elm-sycamore floodplain forest of Modoc Creek was tall nettle (Urtica procera= U. dioica var. or ssp. procera). This is the more common form of U. dioica. It is found along most streams in the Ozark Mountains. It grows to twice the height of U. dioica ssp. gracilis, at least in the forests described herein. The plants presented here and in the next photograph were growing along Lost Creek, a stream sharing a confluence with Modoc Creek. Individuals of tall nettle along Modoc Creek were more shaded and did not provide photographs that were as clear and detailed as those shown here. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. November.

145. Stings by a stream- Upper portion of a shoot of tall nettle that was growing beside Lost Creek. According to Steyermark (1963. p. 567) young shoots of this species makes up one of several native forbs used as a pot-herb or what hillbillies know simply as "greens" (ie. Ozarker spinach). It thus shares the same pot as pokeweed, wild lettuce, dock, and other forbs. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Novermber.

146.. Flowers on a stinging shoot- Pistillate inflorescences at leaf axils (union of shoot and leaf petiole) of tall nettle. Details of an individual shoot of Urtica procera= U. dioica var. or ssp. procera. Along Lost Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. October, early bloom stage.

147. Grasslike floor dweller- Davis' caric sedge (Carex davisii) was the most common grasslike plant in the herbaceous layer of a western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder bottomland forest that developed in the floodplain of bottom of Modoc Creek in the western Ozark Plateau. The major herbaceous species were silky and Virginia wildrye and there were numerous forbs (many covered above) immediately. This was one of the few grasslike plants on this forest range.It was obviously a cool-season species being at this degree of vegetative development in early winter. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Christmas Day.

148. Doing it mostly in the shade- Vegetative and sexually reproductive shoots of Davis' caric sedge on the floor of a mixed haedwood (western hackberry-American elm-sycamore-boxelder) bottomland forest that developed along the floodplain of Modoc Creek in the Ozark Plateau. This is a cool-season species that--as shown in the immediately preceding slide--makes much of its vegetative growth during autumn through early winter. This pattern of growth permits Davis' sedge to survive (even thrive) under conditions of dense shade. This grasslike plant must, nonetheless, make some growth and undergo sexual reproduction during spring under heavy shade of a nearly completely closed forest canopy. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June, soft-dough stage.

149. Fruits on floor of forest- Detail of clusters of fruit (spikelets) of Davis' caric sedge, including individual units of fruit. The perigynium (plural is perigynia) is the thin sac (actually a sheath) surrounding the gynoecium and, as fruit matures, the achene in Carex species (Smith, 1977, p. 303). Perigynia and achenes are inside of the spikeletes in the fruit clusters. This plant was in almost constant shade once tree leaves fully developed. Light adequate enough for this pictures was extremely short-lived. These photographs were a gift from God and fruits of photographic patience, but a long wait in the woods is itself a form of Almighty grace. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early June, soft-dough stage.

150. Shorter stage star- Fruiting body of an earthstar (Geastrum fimbriatum) on floor of the hackberry-American elm-sycamore floodplain forest of Modoc Creek. This member of the Geastradaceae is in the order Lycoperdales which includes the larger and generally more conspicuous puffballs. The central pollen sac had begun to dry and shrivel up indicating that opening and relaease of spores was only a few days away. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

Ash-Elm-Hackberry Forests- Example From a Spring-Fed Wetland In the Ozark Plateau

The next series of slides and captions that began immediately below covered another form of bottomland forest that had developed in close proximity to that described in the last (preceding) slide series. Sycamore and pawpaw were key or indicator species (tree and shrub, respectively) in both forest range types, but the current forest vegetation was that of a wet bottomland (versus the mesic bottomland of the preceding forest) habitat.

151. White ash (Fraxinus americana)-sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) wet bottomland forest- A natural spring in this bottomland at the western edge of the Ozark Plateau supported a unique combination of mesophytic and hydrophytic species. The dominant tree was white ash based on both relative forest canopy cover, number of mature trees, and regeneration of young trees. Sycamore was conspicuous by the white, exfoliating bark of large tree trunks, but there were no trees of immature age classes (ie. no reproduction). From perspective of tree size and apparent age, sycamore was interpreted as semi- co-dominant to ash (an ecological-successional status between that of a dominant and an associate species). Black oak (Quercus velutina) and northern red oak (Q. rubra) were obvious associate (tree with retained dead leaves in right background); hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), boxelder (Acer negundo), and red or slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) were also present in several age classes with regeneration of hackberry and boxelder prouonced. Larger elms had succomed to Dutch elm disease (Ceratocystis ulmi). Black walnut (Juglans nigra) and chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii) grew on better drained soils at outer edges of this community. The lower shrub layer was dominated by buckbrush or coralberry which occurred throughout the understorey. Pawpaw and gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa) grew at restricted, local scale. Woody climbers, which grew abundantly on trunks and high into the crowns of almost all the larger trees, consisted of trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), Virginia creeper, and poison ivy. Herbaceous species were covered in succeeding photographs. The green patches of understorey visible in this slide were composed of two sedge species (Carex lurida and C. lupulina). The author observed use of this vegetation-- specifically that immediately adjacent to the spring-- in autumn by migrating woodcock or timber doodle (Philohela minor). There were many probe holes (earthworms were most likely the sought prey) in the mud of this habitat. All-in-all, a most unique combination of biotic range community. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Hiebernal aspect, December. One of numerous forms or variants of wet bottomland forest based on classification of natural communities by Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). Combination of SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American elm-Green Ash ) and SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). Too small for Kuchler units. Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wet Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps.153-157). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

152. White ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest in summer verdure- Same vegetation as seen in winter aspect in the preceding slide. The dominant herb averaged over entire herbaceous layer was cyber or lurid sedge (Carex lurida). It was frequently "accompanied" by hop sedge (C. lupulina). The dominant forb in the vernal aspect was wake robbin (Trillium sessile); dominant forb in estival aspect was spotted jewelweed (Impatiens capensis) and halbertleaf mallow (Hibiscus militaris). Other forbs present were cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata). Dominant grass in and along the spring was rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) while woodreed grass (see slides above) occurred farther from the aquatic habitat and scattered among the trees. The floating green plant on the water surface was lesser duckweed (Lemna minor). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Estival aspect, July. Designation of wet bottomland forest was determined from classification by the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). Combination of SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash) and SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). No Kuchler unit at this small scale. Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wet Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps.153-157). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

153. White ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest- The rice cutgrass and sedge understorey (in and immediately adjacent to the spring feeding this forest range community) was shown here at peak standing crop. The saplings were all green ash. Regeneration of green ash established this as the dominant species of this vegetation. Green ash was rated as Intermediate in tolerance and Moderate in flood tolerance; sycamore had these same ratings (Wenger, 1984, ps. 3, 7). Pawpaw is visible in far left foreground. Trunk of mature tree is green ash with 32 inch DBH (shown immediately below). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). Combination SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash) X SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).Wet Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps.153-157). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

154. White ash (Fraxinus americana)- The trunk of this mature white ash is the one shown in the preceding slide. DBH: 32 inches. The grasslike herb at base of trunk was lurid or cyber sedge. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. December.

155. Leaves of white ash- Ottawa County, Okahoma. July.

156. Bumper crop of samaras- Leaves and heavy yield of fruit in a fairly young white ash graowing on banks of Modoc Creek, Detail of leaves and samaras on a typical twig. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

157. Once in a while- White ash does not bear fruit regularly. More often than not trees of this species do not produce samaras in the western Ozark Plateau. The reason for this relatively rare sexual event was not known. It was almost assuredly not due to water stress given that trees such as the specimen "sampled" here grow on stream banks and even on inundated habitats such as around around springs. Once in a while, however, its a "Katy bar the door", "bang-up" year with whoppin' yields of ash fruit. Evidence of such a phenomenon was offered here. Banks of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

158. Samara study- Cluster of samaras of white ash laid across lichen-covered, fallen branches of the parent plant. The samara fruit type is big-winged achene. A more detailed definition is a dry, indehiscent, one-seeded, winged fruit (Smith, 1977, p. 307)..

Identification note: Identification features and published morphological characteristics of leaves and fruit that distinguish (supposedly) between white ash and green ash are often conflicting and generally confusing. For instance many, if not most, authorities (eg. Harlow et al., 1979; Elias, 1980), described leaflets of white ash as having margins varying from entire to serrate or toothed. There remains considerable variation and apparent descreptancies in descriptions and identifying features of samaras both green and white ash when different flora and texts were consulted. Atlas of the Flora of the Great Plains (McGregor et al., 1977, p. 298) and the USDA Plant Profile (www..usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=FRPE) did not show green ash as occurring in Ottawa County, Oklahoma which was location of photographs of ash presented above. Given, however, that maps showed green ash occurring in all counties contiguous with small Ottawa County, Oklahoma it seemed likely that green ash does grow there. Steyermark (1960, p. 1178), the definitive flora closest to Ottawa county, Oklahoma, distinguished between samaras of green and white ash on basis being winged more than 1/3 vs. no more than 1/3 and having 2-4 vs. more than 4 ridges on portions of the wings covering seeds. Based on these features and plant distribution maps provided by thedefinitive authorities (at time of this writing) ash trees and component parts (leaves, samaras, twigs) presented above were white and not green ash.

159. ce ain't nice- Severe damage from an ice storm to trees in a green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest in the Ozark Plateau. A late autumn precipitation event resulted when warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico rose over cold, dry Arctic air (a Norther) resulting in the "winter mix" of, in order, rain, freezing rain, sleet, and snow that accumulated as ice to depths of one to four inches. The heavy accumulations of ice added so much additional weight to trees, power lines, roofs, etc. that numerous of these objects crashed to the ground. Such precipitation events, known as ice storms, can cause some of the most incredible damage in Nature to trees. Locally, extreme damage to trees and shrubs may rival that from tornadoes and hurricanes. Area of impact is frequently larger than that from tornadoes. The ice storm responsible for the damage shown here and in subsequent slides cut a swath about three hundred miles long and a one hundred and fifty miles wide. The wet bottomlad forest shown here was the green ash-sycamore community introduced above that developed around a natural spring. Most of the downed crowns and individual limbs at this site were from sycamore, the locally dominant tree, but Shummard oak, black oak, and green ash also suffered major damage. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Hiebernal aspect, December. One of numerous forms or variants of wet bottomland forest based on classification of natural communities by Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). Combination of SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American elm-Green Ash ) and SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). Too small for Kuchler units. Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wet Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps.153-157). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

160. The double-edged sword of water- A hollow and nearly-dead-but-still-standing sycamore was toppled by heavy ice accumulations resulting from late autumn ice storm caused by the atmospheric phenomenon of overriding (warm, moist air rising above cold, dry, heavy air resulting in mixed precipitation of rain, freezing rain, sleet, and snow). This old sycamore and its cohorts, including its side-by-side "sister" tree, became established and survived as facultative phreatophytes along a natural spring in the western edge of the Ozark (= Springfield) Plateau. The ice-downed sycamore was the left sycamore (leftmost, conspicuous, white-barked trunk in left midground) shown in the first slide above that introduced this local green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest. Ponded water from the spring was visible in the left midground of the first of these two slides. Ironically it was liquid water that permitted establishment and continued survival of sycamore and it was solid (frozen water in form of ice) that finally ended the life of the old, toppled sycamore. Details of the hollow trunk and its downfall were covered in the immediately following set of photographs and caption. From perspective of plant succession and development of this wet bottomland forest the most obvious change in this forest community was the on-going replacement of sycamore by western hackberry. The characteristic netted or deeply furrowed bark of the latter species was distinctive on the trunk of the pole-size tree in left foreground of the first photograph and in the three centermost saplings (included the leftmost one on which the sycamore had fallen and bent). The sapling on the right of the first slide and in left midground of second slide was a sapling of Shummard oak (the same sapling in both photographs incidentially). These species dynamics were already in play several years before the old sycamore fell. They will certainly be accelerated thereafter. This pattern of species replacement (the succession of plant species) was taking place at the edge of the wet bottomland forest. In closer proximity to the pool of spring water sycamore and green ash were still the species having greatest recruitment and, thus, were an edaphic climax (in polyclimax theory), postclimax (in monoclimax theory), or a climax that developed along a gradient in which soil moisture was determinative (in climax pattern theory). The lack of sycamore reproduction and, instead, reproduction of western hackberry was consistent with changes in the hackberry-American elm-bitternut hickory floodplain forest along Modoc Creek described in detail above. These two forest range communities were about 350 yards apart. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Hiebernal aspect, December. One of numerous forms or variants of wet bottomland forest based on classification of natural communities by Missouri Natural Areas Committee (1987). FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). Combination of SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American elm-Green Ash ) and SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). Too small for Kuchler units. Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Wet Bottomland Forest (Nelson, 2005, ps.153-157). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

161. Hollow-grounded- Details of the hollow and almost-dead-though-still-standing sycamore shown above that was felled by heavy accumulation of ice in late autumn ice storm. Hollow trees (trees with hollow trunks), contrary to the erroneous popular view, are usually about as strong as trees with solid trunks. Not quite, but close. This is the same basic physics as the fact that under certain kinds of strain a steel or iron pipe is quite strong compared to a solid piece of steel or iron of the same metal and diameter. This is why shafts of bird feathers, the hollow culms of many grasses (think bamboo), and hollow airplane wings (used as fuel tanks with different degrees of fullness) are very strong, especially when compared to their weight. In the same manner hollow trees can stand much strain and stress. In the case of this sycamore the added weight of accumulated ice (about two inches) and accompanied with gusty winds was more than the trunk that was 9/10ths or more hollow could bear up under. In this same ice storm there were large, completely intact trees (including sycamore, American elm, and hackberry) that also crashed. It was no wonder that this over-ripe oldster ended its life cycle thusly. There was a small, but very deep fire scar on the base of the fallen sycamore that appeared to the point of entry of decay agents (fungal mycelium were present) that permitted decomposition of the dead wood (heartwood) inside the trunk. The lower end of this fire scar was visible in the second of these photographs (at extreme left margin of the photograph about 3/8ths of the vertical distance from bottom of slide). Referral to any freshman Botany text will remind viewers that the layers tissue of the tree trunk moving from interior to exterior were pith (very little of that); xylem of heartwood; followed consecutively by living xylem, cambium, and live phloem; and, finally, bark. It was the heartwood, which in a tree of this age comprised vast bulk of the trunk, that was susceptible to decay by microorganisms and fungii. In fact, in this tree there was remarkably little sapwood and bark to keep this old fellow upright. It was a testament to the strength of hollow trees that this more-dead-than-alive, rotten sycamore stood as long as it did and that it took such extreme stress to bring it down. Even down this sycamore remained a critical component in the forest range ecosystem of which it was part for decades. As this trunk continues to rot it will release nutrients stored in wood to enter the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, etc. It hollow will undoubtedly serve as a den for coon, possum, feral house cat, etc. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. December.

162. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis)- Distinctive bark, branching pattern, and habit of sycamore. This massive old-growth specimen of sycamore was growing along the flood plain of Modoc Creek (Ottawa County, Oklahoma) and was over 7 feet DBH (where the branch-like sprout originated). Authorities regard the sycamore as one of the hardwood (angiosperm) species that attains largest mature size (especially in diameter) in North America. Sycamore is interpreted as a pioneer species that persist into the climax forest, often as ancient behemenths like this splendon specimen. Such trees often live for decades as a member of climax riparian vegetation where they function as facultative phreatophytes. Even at some distance from streams sycamores like the one presented here get a continuous water supply from the water course by lateral flow. April.

163. Crown and upper trunk of intermediate-age sycamore. The exfoliating, mottled mature bark against a background of grayish immature bark is a distinctive pattern to those familar with the eastern deciduous forest. Newton County, Missouri. December.

164. Leaves and fruit of sycamore- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

165. Sexy sycamore- Leader of sycamore bearing a male and feamae inflorescence. More detailed (close-up) views of these were presented immediately below. Lampasas County, Texas. April.

166. Male equipment- Staminate flower clusters (heads)of sycamore consist of a myriad of stamen mingled in with tiny scales. Lampasas County, Texas. April.

167. Female equipment- Pistillate flower clusters (heads)of sycamore are comprised of numerous ovaries mixed up with minute scales. Lampasas County, Texas. April.

168. Part of sycamore's secret- In contrast to detrminate growth of many other--probably most-- hardwoods (eg. oaks, hickories, walnut) and conifers with preformed buds at shoot (leader) tips, sycamore and some other angiosperms like sweetgum and willows have indeterminate growth. Whereas extension of the branch in determinate growth is in one seasonlong bout of growth (at least as growing conditions are favorable and at rates consistent with growth favorability) indeterminate growth occurs in phases or "flushes". These flushed are obvious when new leaves appear periodically throughout course of the growing season Examples of new leaves at tips of sycamore can often be seen throughout summer months. The three photographs provided examples of such recurrent or flushes of growth at ends of lower branches in sycamore growing on banks of Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June.

169. Saprophytic teeth on a sycamore- Fruiting body of bearded tooth fungus (Hericium erinaceus). This outstanding specimen of this picturesque species somehow made itself "to home" in the tall crotch of this more-dead-than-alive old sycamore. How the spore found its way to this habitat is anybody's guess. H. erinaceus is not common, but it is found far more frequently in oak-hickory forest to the east than this one along the San Saba River in an ecotone between the eastern Edwards Plateau and the southern tip of the Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational area of central Texas. This seemed an appropriate place to include this saprophyte on a sycamore while that tree species was being featured.The taxonomic hierarchy of H. erinaceus going from class down to family was Basidomycetes, Hymenomycetes, Aphyllophales, Hydnaceae. Lampasas County, Texas. January, just post-maturity and beginning to dry up.

170. Next year's saprophytic toothed fruit- Fruiting body of the same bearded tooth fungus as introduced in the preceding photograph. This spore-bearing structure appeared ten months following the one shown immediately above. This fruit body grew out of the opposite side of the sycamore snag. It was photographed at a slightly earlier stage of maturity and from more of a ventral (bottom-up) view than its predecessor. Lampasas County, Texas. November; peak maturity.

171. Gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa)- Whole plant of gray dogwood growing along the streambank of the spring shown in this series of photographs of wet bottomland forest. This is a many stemmed, sprawling riparian shrub. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

172. Leaves of gray dogwood- Leaves on plant in preceding slide. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

173. Colony of sedge in understorey of gren ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest- Hop sedge is the species most abundant here but there were some "strays" of cyber sedge present. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

174. Cyber or lurid sedge (Carex lurida)- Staminate (upper, tassel-like) and pistillate inflorescences of lurid sedge. In understorey of green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest. Ottawa County, June.

175. Hop sedge (Carex lupulina)- Flowering shoot of hop sedge: male inflorescence (upper) and female inflorescences (below). Growing in understorey of green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

176. Rice cutgrass (Leersia oxyzoides)- Small colony of rice cutgrass on an alluvial bar along an Ozark Plateau creek. Cutgrass is a hydrophytic grass that usually grows on gravel bars or along banks of streams but in spots that receive direct sunlight throughout most of the day. Cutgrass derived it's common name from the fact that the rough leaves can cause mild abrasions on bare skin. Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September.

177. Spikelets of rice cutgrass- Modoc Creek, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September.

178. Halbertleaf rose mallow and cardinal flower as local dominant forbs in green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest- This spring-fed unique form of the eastern deciduous forest (combination SAF 93 X SAF 94 forest cover types) was botanically diverse in both species and structure. The herbaceous layer was a mosaic of microsites composed here-and-there variously of tall, robust forbs; hydrophytic sedges; or grasses of varying water requirements. In this view two of the most mesic (and strinkingly photogenic) forbs native to the deciduous forest of eastern North America grew as pals in the rich mud of a bottomland forest. This forest community was at the extreme western edge of the Ozark Plateau where it contacts the Cherokee Prairie of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Forbs like cardinal flower are more typical of "wild flowers" found in the Applachians or Catskills. Wetland vegetation was an interesting assemblage of species usually not growing together. They also occur more commonly on habitats different from the environment seen here. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late estival-early autumnal aspect, September.

179. Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis)- This large specimen (over a yard in height) was growing at the bank edge of the spring that was the basis for the wet bottomland eastern hardwood forest presented in this series of photographs. Cyber and hop sedge were visible in the background as was the trunk of the large green ash shown previously. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late estival-early autumnal aspect, September.

180. Inflorescence of cardinal flower- Understorey of green ash-sycamore wet bottomland forest. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September.

181. Halbertleaf rose mallow (Hibiscus militaris)- The flowering shoot of this native forb portrayed the staminal column that immediately marked it a member of the Malvaceae (mallow family). This remarkable family includes not only the greenhouse or indoor Hibiscus species but such yard beauties as Rose of Sharon (H. syriacus) and hollyhock (Althaea rosea) as well as okra or gumbo (Hibiscus esulentus), the beloved southern garden vegetable, and the world's most important fiber crop, the Gossypium species. Those familar with King Cotton will immediately note the close resemblance of the unopened flower buds on the rose mallow shown here with the cotton "square". The descriptive name of halbertleaf is in reference to the halbert, a combination spear or pike and battle-axe used by soliders in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Hence, the Latin militaris. This high seed-yielding prairie and forest forb should be a favorite for those landscaping with native plants in humid regions. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.

182. Colony of lesser duckweed (Lemna minor)- The common name of this "nifty" little monocotyledon is in reference to the palatable forage that it affords waterfowl. In regions where precipitation is sufficient to maintain streams and ponded water Lemna species often cover water surfaces so as to superficially resemble algae. L. minor accounts for about 90% of the Lemna species consumed by waterfowl (Martin et al., 1951, p. 448). Steyermark (1963, p. 389) reported that it was eaten by muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) and other aquatic animals. The current author observed lesser duckweed being grazed by the red-eared slider turtle (Chrysemys scripta). Lemna species are submerged to partly floating plants. Permanent spring, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

183. Close-up of lesser duckweed- Several adult-sized plants of lesser duckweed were placed on this sycamore leaf for photographing and to portray the relative size of this tiny monocot. Distinction of individual plants, each of which has only one root, is difficult without magnification. These minute aquatic plants are monocotyledons but the sporophytic generation consist of leafless plants whose bodies are reduced to a thallus ( a plant body that is not differentiated into leaf and stem). Permanent spring, Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April.

184. Lesser duckweed bearing fruit- Individual plants of the Lemna species are perennial and reproduction is typically vegetative. Duckweeds are monoecious with much-reduced flowers. The tiny fruit (seen here as numerous smaller, green, ovoid parts) is a utricle (an indehiscent, one-seeded, bladdery fruit).

Bottomland Forest- Example on an Ephemeral Stream in Ozark Plateau

The following example showed a forest co-dominated with both hackberry or western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) and sugarberry (C. laevigata) along with American elm (Ulmus americana) with an understory almost exclusively of broad-leaf wood oats (Uniola latifolia= Chasmanthium latifolium). Details of the two Celtis species and broad-leaf wood oats was provided. Part of this forest had suffered severe damage due to windthrow by straight-line winds. Uprooting of trees by combined action of wind and saturated soil from recent heavy rains furnished an example of secondary plant succession in the "tree cradles" formed by tree blowdown (uprooting).

185. Bottomland forest of western hackberry, sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), and American elm (Ulmus americana) with an understory almost exclusively of broad-leaf wood oats (Uniola latifolia= Chasmanthium latifolium) with scattered solidary plants of the shade-tolerant composite, elephant's foot (Elepohantopus carolinianus). Beautiful plant community and an example of permanent deciduous forest range in contrast to the typical transitory feature of these dense hardwood forest types. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. September, late estival aspect. No obvious FRES or Kuchler designations as this is a smaller unit. Neither was this relatively unique community described by Braun (1950) though it corresponds to general creek and river bottom vegetation in the Ozark Mountains. SAF Cover Type 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al., 2005).

186. Side-by-side seedlings- Hackberry or western hackberry and sugarberry frequently grow in close proximity to each other. This complicates identification in the field, especially when there is only one species present and even more so with large trees whose leaves are considerable distance from the observer. When Celtis occidentalis and C. laevigata grow next to each other leaves can be compared and differences between the two species are more obvious. Such was the instance presented here and in subsequent slides. Larger (two- to three-year-old) seedlings of hackberry and sugarberry germinated and continued to grow side-by-side on a tree cradle created when several adult trees were uprooted from saturated soil by straight line winds. In an example on one of those cradles in the Ozark Plateau a study in species was presented with a seedlings of hackberry on the left and one of sugarberry on the right. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

187. Side-by-side Celtis- Closer views of leaves of the two seedlings introduced above. In both photographs hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) was on left and sugarberry (C. laevigata) on the right. Hackberry leaves typically have serated margins while those of sugarberry are entire. Otherwise, no need for words when there are comparison photographs like these. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

188. Two hackberry seedlings/sprouts- A seedling (left) and a sprout from a three-year-old sapling (right) of hackberry or western hackberry in the western Ozark Plateau. The sprout (secondary shoot) came from a sapling that had been broken-off by a roatary shredder. This slide provided a comparison of growth between a first-season seedling and a first-season stump sprout. It also showed variation in leaves of this species. Toothed (serate) leaf margins was a key identifiction feature. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

189. Leafy samples #1- Examples of leaves of hackberry (Celtis occidentalis). From the crade tree specimen introduced above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

190. Study of sugarberry- Trunk and basal leaves of sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) in the western Ozark Plateau. This tree was growing in the same fencerow as sugarberry seedlings introduced above. Bark of sugarberry or smooth hackberry is not always as corky or knobby as this specimen, but this was a fairly typical example of this species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

191. Leafy samples #2- Examples of leaves of hackberry (Celtis laevigata). From the cradle tree specimen introduced above. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

192. Catchy branching pattern in sugarberry- A combination of alternate branches coming off of opposite sides of a leader is a frequent branching arrangement in Celtis species, especially C. laevigata. Perhaps this pattern permits large numbers of leaves with a minimal degree of shading so as to facilitate photosynthesis in forest canopies. Would make a eye-catching pattern for neck ties, particularily for dressed-up foresters. Erath County, Texas. September; fruit-ripe stage.

193. Shiny leaves and sweet fruit (well, sort of)- Leaves and fruit of sugarberry shown in photographs that featured leaf position and density along with a better-than-typical crop of fruit. Fruit type in Celtis species is a drupe. Fernald (1950, p. 553) remarked that these sweet-tasting drupes were basis of the name Celtis as used by Pliny for what he termed lotus. Anyway, wildlife of various species consume this fruit and undoubtedly contribute to dispersal of Celtis species. Erath County, Texas. September; fruit-ripe stage.

194. Spikelets of wood oats (Uniola latifolia)- The inflorescence of wood oats is one of the most attractive of North American Gramineae. In extensive stands (like the one seen immediately above) wood oats creates a stikingly beautiful aspect. Uniola (= Chasmanthium) species have some of the most laterally compressed spikelets of any grass. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.

Windthrow or blowdown in a lowland forest of hackberry or western hackberry, sugarberry or southern hackberry, honey locust, chinquapin oak, and American or white elm provided an opportunity to study secondary plant succession at local scale through the phenomenon of forest gap or patch dynamics. Progression of revegetation, vegetation development by secondary succession, on a sere of climax lowland deciduous forest, SAF Cover Type 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash), in the western edge of the Ozark (Springfield) Plateau was preented in the following section of this chapter. Straight line winds of over 70 (probably closer to 80) miles per hour on Easter Sunday (15 April 2001) in conjuction with wet--though not saturated--soil resulted in uprooting of numerous mature trees of the species just listed. This blowdown occurred along the perimeter of a climax second-growth forest on slopes just above an intermittant stream. Deeper inside the forest there was minimal windthrow. This was a typical pattern resulting from the wind blockage affect of outermost trees on edges of the forest community. A series of sequential photographs over a period of years following blowdown of trees on the perimeter of this lowland hackberry-sugarberry-elm forest documented early recovery of forest range vegetation in the cavities and immediately surrounding areas of denudation caused by high winds and wet soil conditions. Such forest gaps with large holes or craters left by uprooting of mature trees provided initial bare ground for the process of plant community development (forest revegetation by secondary plant succcession) at local scale, known as patch dynamics. Foresters affectionately (by standards of stoic woodsmen) refer to such soil cavities as "tree cradles" due to the frequent germination and subsequent establishment of trees in the hole and/or surrounding area of tree fall. Cavities thus created provide bare soil and more mesic land (edaphic-microtopographic) habitat for tree seedlings or root suckers. As the following photographs showed development of vegetation (secondary plant succession) pm disturbance microsites caused by uprooting and related creation of bare soil (wind as "Nature's bulldozer") is not simply a matter of tree seedling pioneering the denuded microhabitat. Yes, this is sometimes the case as for example when seedlings of sycamore, eastern cottonwood, willow, sweetgum, and other hardwoods sprout up almost immediately on newly cut stream bnks, sand bars, roadcuts, or clearcuts. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) are examples of western conifers that typically have the same pioneering or early seral stage establishment following creation of bare soil environments by disturbance. Coast redwood also sends up sprouts (vegetative reproduction). Classic studies of secondary succession on old fields or go-back land have shown unequivocally that such rapid establishment of late seral tree species (some persisting into climax) and/or climax tree species is not the typical pattern of vegetation development on the seres of many range and forest sites. The photographic study presented below showed the same phenomenon, the same pattern, of old field succession commencing with annual, pioneer ("weedy") species which were then followed in succession by short-lived, perennial, herbaceous species over course of several growing seasons before seedlings of tree species vegetated the "tree cradle". There was a "successional twist", however, as some root and stump sprouts from unearthed trees quickly emerged and grew alongside the herbaceous pioneers that sprouted from the soil seed bank and quickly populated "tree cradles" . Local microsites of denudation caused by uprooted trees were designated as "tree clods" (for the mass of soil, rock, tree roots) and their "holes" or "craters" (cavities left in the land surface by removal of "tree clods") were followed over spans of time beginning with initial plant communities in the first growing season starting after tree uprooting. A single "tree clod" typically consisted of two or more mature trees that had been uprooted together as a unit. A few "tree clods" were made up of a single large tree whereas other "tree clods" and their "holes" were made up of as many as five trees that were uprooted en mass. In this photographic treatment two examples of uprooted tree units ("tree clods") caused by the Easter Sunday blowdown were presented to show recovery of plants on these local spots or patches of disturbance. The first of these examples was of one large "tree clod" consisting of five individual mature tress. The second example included two somewhat smaller "tree clods" each of which was comprised of a single mature tree and adjacent immature trees (saplings and/or poles) These two examples of "tree clods" and their "root holes" was followed over a sequence of years to provide photographic documentation of secondary plant succession on (in and around) each denuded microsite (forest gap).

195. Broad view of windthrow- Uprooted trees (straight line winds of 70-80mph combined with wet soil) viewed as "tree clods" at outermost edge of a lowland forest of hackberry, sugarberry, hony locust, chinquapin oak, and American elm. A total of four "tree clods" and "craters" created by uplifted earth were visible in this wide-angle photograph. The first of these "tree clods" was caused by uprooting of a large chinquapin oak which broke off crowns of hackberry and two honey locust. The second (and largest) "clod" was created by uprooting of a large hackberry and very large black walnut which coame up together as a unit and which brought down a sugarberry, American elm and honey locust. The third "tree clod" consisted of a large honey locust, two young American elm, and two young (pole-size) hackberry or sugarberry (the two could not be distinguished without leaves). The fourth "tree clod" was comprised of a massive honey locust that brought down (uprooted with it) two smaller hackberry or sugarberry. "Tree clods" consisted of both: 1) direct victims or causalities (larger, mature trees initially uprooted through storm strain, combination of straight line winds and wet soil) and 2) indirect or secondary victims or causalities (smaller trees that survived storm stress of wind and wet soil but were brought down, and their roots partially up, by crashing larger trees uprooted by storm action). The large trees that were toppled by direct results of storm strain (high winds and wet soil) were almost entirely uprooted or else the major roots had been broken in the crash. As such, the main shoot of all large trees (chinquapin oak, honey locust, black walnut, sugarberry, and hackberry) had died by late spring. Some of these large trees sent up root suckers so that the actual genetic tree did not die completely and instead persisted as clonal offspring (asexual or vegetative reproduction), but these were relatively weak and lacking in vigor. In subsequent growing seasons some of these sprouts died. Some of the smaller trees that were brought down by uprooted windthrown trees were not completely uprooted with the result that they leaved albeit in the horizontal plane. The second and massive "clod" (directly uprooted large hackberry and even bigger black walnut with secondary causalities of Ameican elm, sugarberry or hackberry [whichever], and honey locust) served as one example described below. The third "clod" (directly uprooted honey locust and secondary causalities of elm and hackberry or sugarberry) and fourth "tree clod" (directly uprooted huge honey locust and two young or pole-sized hackberry as secondary causalities) were in close porximity and together served as the second example to be described. Photographs were taken periodically over a span of years in either late June or early July to present late spring or early summer aspects of successional range vegetation. Given that denuded microhabitats were created in mid April, these photographs represented the number of growing seasons (mid-way through) since denudation. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June, 2001.

196. First growing season of first blowdown example- "Tree clod" and "crater", the second of four such forest gaps of "clods and craters" presented in the preceding photograph, caused when a very large black walnut and large hackberry were uprooted by straight line winds and wet soil. Plant species growing on this denuded microenvironment included such pioneers as giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) and hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis) as well as surviving, long-established perennials such as silky wildrye (Elymus villosus). There was some mare'stail or horseweed (Conyza canadensis= Erigerion cnaadensis), but much less of this species than of giant ragweed (which was somewht surprising given that these two annual composites are frequently co-dominant in early years of old-field succession). There were also abundant root sprouts from the uprooted trees, but these were generally lacking in vigor so that most were dead by the second growing season. Most plants of poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron= Toxicodendron radicans) and fox or frost grape (Vitis vulpina) survived blowdown and even benefitted from increased light. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June, 2001.

197. Fifth growing season of first blowdown example- Successional vegetation in fifth growing season on a "tree clod and crater" caused by uprooting of a very large black walnut and large hackberry. Species of pioneer annuals--including giant ragweed, marestail or horseweed, and hairy crabgrass--were still common and dominant in bottom and sides of craters as in first growing season following windthrow. There was abundant cover of the Eurasian annual grass, Japanese chess or brome (Bromus japonicus) which had many straw-colored, dead or dying shoots at time of photograph (July). This grass had not been a prominent component in the first warm-growing season following blowdown (15 April, 2001) because it is a cool season species. The most abundant grass was silky wildrye (several spikes visible in foreground of second slide), the native, cool-seaaon perennial decreaser which had been present in understorey of the climax forest and survived on "tree clods" even in the first growing season following uprooting of trees. Another relative common and abundant annual that had been present since the first cool-growing season following denudation was the naturalized Eurasian forb, hedge parsley (Torilis japonica). Seedlings of American elm, hackberry, and sugarberry were now well-established. Sprouts of honey locust origining from roots of huge, uprooted trees were obviously larger. An example of one of these vigerous honey locust root sprouts was in lower right corner of first photograph. Note: it was very difficult to determine whether the young trees of hackberry, sugarberry, and elm were from seed or root sprouts, but based on plants in the first couple of growing seasons following blowdown it was determined that they were, in fact, seedlings and not resprouts off of roots of downed adult trees (ie. sexual not asexual reproduction had been responsible for regeneration of climax tree species. It was the opposite situation for honey locust in which regenerated trees were root sprouts of huge uprooted trees. These climax tree species did not dominate the denuded site on basis of density, cover, biomass, etc., but they were becoming more abundant. The biennial (and native) tall thistle (Cirsium altissimum) had become locally common (eg. lower left foreground of second photograph). Also, perennial forbs had begun to occupy the denuded site. This included an unidentified (not yet flowering) goldenrod (Solidago sp.) like the plant in the right corner of the second photograph. A common (and perennial) forb was climbing false buckwheat (Polygonum scandens). This species was conspicuous in the foregroung of both photographs, especially the second. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, 2005.

198. Eighth growing season of first blowdown example- Recovering vegetation in eighth growing season on a "tree clod and crater" caused by uprooting of a very large black walnut and large hackberry. Almost all foliar cover w