1. Trunk of loblolly pine- This is the typical pattern and color of bark on this the largest of the four major pine species in the Southern Pine Region. Appropriately the bark bears the burnished coloration of past cool surface fires. A Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) with newly emerged leaves was climbing the attractive trunk.

Crocket National Forest, Houston County, March.

2. Bough of loblolly pine- Needles, twig bark, and old cones of loblolly pine showing key features of this major industrial forest species of the Texas Pineywoods.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas.

3. Cones of loblolly pine- Relative size, shape, and unique gross features of loblolly pine were presented in these two views of two cones of the dominant pine over much of the southeastern portion of the deciduous forest of North America in cluding the pineywoods of east Texas and western Louisiana. The reproductive (sexual) organs of conifers are borne on a woody or fleshy (berry-like) structure that is designated a strobulus (strobili is the plural). These stroboli are called cones by foresters and most regular folk other than "real" botanists. Conifers produce separate male (staminate) and female (ovulate) cones so that this group of gymnosperms are either diocecious or monecious. Moneciousness is the general arrangement for most genera in Pinaceae (Pinus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga), Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus), and Taxodiaceae (Taxodium, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron)..

Montgomery County, Texas. February (most seed had shattered from the woody ovulatecone).

4. Seed in a cone- Two views of a seed in the ovulate cone of loblolly cone. A seed of loblolly pine was shown without a marker in the first slide whereas the base of a fasicle of loblolly pine marked one seed in the second slide slide.The brown, parchment-resembling wing of this single seed (one of a pair) was cut away to more clearly reveal the dry seed. Most other seeds, including the other one of this cone unit, had shattered (been shed) from this cone.

The cone of conifers in the Pinaceae is a compound woody structure comprised of numerous units on which the seed, with its attendant parts, develops and is borne while developing before being shed. Each woody unit of the ovulate cone is is a primary appendage-- a woody bract-- that is called the ovuliferous scale. This woody scale is the ovule/seed-bearing part of the cone (strobolus). Typically a pair of ovules, each of which develops into a dry seed (complete with a winged part for wind dispersal), form on the adaxial (= upper) surface of each woody ovuliferous scale resulting in formation of two seed scars on this upper surface (in the axil where scale joins the central woody axis of the cone.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

5. Core and treasure of the cone- Another view of a seed near apex of cone of loblolly pine. Then two views of a pair of loblolly pine seeds on adaxial surface of ovuliferous scale (ie. in axillary area where woody scale attached to central shaft of the cone). In the first of these two photographs the wing on the left seed of the pair was twisted far to the right for better viewing of the wing, but the wing was in from of (covering up) the right seed. In the second photograph the wing of both seeds of this pair had been removed to more clearly reveal the two seeds.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

6. Future loblolly pines- Unshattered loblolly pine seeds taken from the cones shown above. Some seeds still had their wings attached whereas others were missing these wind-dispersal facilitting organs. Steel measure indicated the size of seed and wings. The two seeds with attached, intact wings were a pair attached on the same woody ovuliferous scale.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

7. Up-close look- Seeds of loblolly pine were shown at closer distance to present details of seed coat and texture of the fragile woody material making up wings. Pines are examples of seed dispersal by wind, anemochory (= aerochory), in which wings facilitate action of wind as an agent or facilitator of sexual reproduction. Wind also operates as facilitator during pollination.

Montgomery County, Texas. February.

9. Going into a loblolly pine pine- Stucture and botanical composition of a second-growth loblolly pine forest showing an herbaceous layer dominated by little bluestem followed by longleaf woodoats then beaked panicgrass with two annual panicgrass species sometimes locally functioning as associates, a tall shrub layer represented by flowering dogwood in full-flower, and a lower shrub layer (in this vegetation) of which yaupon holly was the major species. The two annual panicgrasses were warty panicgrass (Panicum verrucosum) and savanna panicgrass (P. gymnocarpon).

Fire-scourched bark attested to use of prescribed or, at least, convenience burning in a Pineywoods oak-pine forest that was maintained primarily as a loblolly pine stand.

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

10.Transitory loblolly pine forest range- Loblolly pine forest range at either: 1) late seral stage with loblolly pine maintained in a hardwood (mostly an oak)-pine forest by frequent burning or 2) a mid-stage (more-or-less) of a wood crop in a thin (sparsely or weakly stocked) stand of loblolly pine. Either way there was low stocking of loblolly pine, the tree crop species, and a well-developed, high-yielding (by loblolly pine range standards) herbaceous understorey for grazing livestock and/or wildlife.

This was the same stand of loblolly pine forest vegetation as introduced in the immediately preceding photograph. Dominant grass in this "photo-plot" of that loblolly pine forest range was little bluestem with longleaf woodoats, beaked panicgrass, savanna panicgrass, and warty panicgrass also present.

Foremost tree (slightly to right of a conspicuous pine trunk) was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). A young sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with just-beginning-to-open leaves was growing at left margin of photograph. Yaupon of sundry sizes was widespread throughout the woody layers.

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

11. Growing doghair- In the same understorey as presented in the last two preceding photographs and captions there were some very localized (restricted) areas near mature loblolly pine trees on which there were extremely dense patches of pine seedings. Obviously not all of these seedlings could survive, but it was also obvious that these would develop into proverbial "doghair stands" unless something thinned them out. If natural agents of mortality such as fire and disease did not eliminate some of these woefully overstocked little blessings of Mother Nature then Man the Forester would have to intervene in order to achieve efficient management of forest resources. One such "doghair stand" of loblolly pine seedlings was presented in foreground of this photograph.

Various Panicum species (major ones were listed in the preceding caption) were the major grasses on this "photo-plot".

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. Leaves on hardwood species (such as one in left foreground) were just emerging from buds. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

12. A crop of poles- Closed canopy stand of loblolly pine with no herbaceous (grazable) understorey and lower woody layers limited to Tolerant flowering dogwood and yaupon. As a wood crop this single-species stand of loblolly pine was approaching (within a few years of) maturity. This plantation stand was an example of industrial foresty. On this commercial forest the wood crop was a monoculture of fast-growing, hybrid loblolly pine.

Such loblolly pine plantations are a form of even-aged silviculture (silvicultural system). This crop will be harvested in a few years by clearcutting, "a regeneration or harvest method that removes essentially all trees in a stand" (Helms, 1998). Harvest will result in release of many species of grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and Intolerant tree species like sweetgum. Several of the grass species such as those presented in preceding slides will persist for a number of years and through mid-sere of secondary plant succession. Tree species like sweetgum and numerous oaks and hickories will persist unless eliminated by application of selective herbicides or reduced by commercial livestock grazing and/or prescribed burning. Combinations of these silvicultural treatments may be used (as shown periodically throughout this chapter). This and preceding slides of loblolly pine forest vegetation illustrated transitory forest range that is typical of forest cropping systems on commercial (industrial) forests throughout much of southeastern North America.

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). This was an anthropogenic variant of the following vegetational units. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004). Another interpretation of this highly human-modified (= non-natural) forest vegetation was FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). The Kuchler designation would still be K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) while the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) would be a man-made forest cover type of Loblolly Pine (SAF81).

Clarification of terms: the following concepts and definitions were provided from The Dictionary of Forestry developed by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) to assist students in understanding management and production of grazing and/or browsing resources on transitory forest range.

Silvicultural system- a planned series of treatments for tending, harvesting, and re-establishing a stand.

Regeneration method- a cutting procedure by which a new age class is created.

Even-aged regeneration methods regenerate and maintain a stand with a single age class. One even-aged method is clearcutting which is the cutting of essentially all trees, producing a fully exposed microclimate for the development of a new age class (by either natural or artificial re-eatablishment of the next generation, crop, of trees)

13. "Will the real Pineywoods please stand up?"- "You bet, and this is it." In contrast to the loblolly pine plantation introduced in the immediately preceding slide (and several used below to illustrate silvicultural methods) here were two views of the natural oak-hickory-loblolly pine forest vegetation. This was a second-growth forest recovering from the heady days of "cut-and-run" heady logging, but it had the structure (including several layers of vegetation) and species composition of the native mixed hardwood-loblolly pine. Flowering dogwood and lesser cover of redbud hearlded the early days of spring in this sandy land (note road) upland Pineywoods forest. Not exactly a lobolly pine plantation as shown immediately above and farther below. Water oak, accompanied adult and sapling to pole-size loblolly pine. This forest consisted essentially of the species compoisition indicative of the climax vegetation except that following initial frontier, destructive, non-scientific logging; overgrazing (including by free-ranging, mast and root-eating hogs); and underburning (more likely, total fire exclusion) there was only limited herbaceous understorey (mostly of bluestem, panicgrass, and paspalum species along with some sedges and flatsedges)

Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).

16. Big Thicket loblolly pine woods- Exterior view of a loblolly pine-water oak subtype or variant of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type shjowing physiogonomy and botanical composition. At this edge (in a forest opening) young water oak, yaupon holly, and various herbaceous species and the layers they comprise provided an unusual composite "Big Picture" perspective of this forest range vegetation. The small oaks (pole-size) at base of pines were water oak. These young trees had not shed their dead leaves and even had a few persistent live leaves. Yaupon or yaupon holly composed almost all of the lower woody layer except for the regenerting oaks. Grasses were bushy and broomsedge bluestems and bentawn plumegrass.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

17. Edge of a loblolly pine-water oak forest- Detail of herbaceous and lower woody layers of the forest-clearing edge shown in the immediately preceding slide. Regenerated water oak saplings and yaupon made up a lower woody layer. Bentawn plumegrass and broomsedge bluestem and bushy beardgrass were the major herbaceous species. Pine seedlings bore witness to regeneration of loblolly pine.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Designations of this forest range vegetation were given in the preceding caption.

18. Inside with the pines and oaks- Interior of the loblolly pine-water oak forest introduced in the two preceding slides and their captions. American holly (Ilex opaca) was an associate tree species. A few individuals of regenerating American holly and dense yaupon holly made up most of the lower or secondary woody layer. Adequate light on the forest floor at this stage of vegetation development permitted regeneration of pine as well as persistence of an herbaceous understorey consisting of two or three layers. In the interior of this forest community that was more shaded or, same thing, less well-lite than the forest edges shown above, the dominant herbaceous plant was longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora) which "bumped out" the bluestem or beardgrass species and bentawn plumegrass. Other common to locally dominant herbaceous species included cottongrass bulrush, green flatsedge, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), redtop panicgrass (P. rigidulum), and brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatluum). These herbaceous species grew together on local habitats (microhabitats at about largest spatial scale) within this loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community. Most of these were not visible at scale of these two photographs, but they were featured below at scale of both herbaceous layers and individual plants.

In the first of these two slides water oak and loblolly pine were visible as distinctive trees. The largest tree (left-of-center midground) was water oak. In the second of these photographs water oaks were relegated to midground and surrounded by loblolly pines. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly were widespread in the lower woody layer.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

19. Up close in the interior- Interior structure and species composition of a Big Thicket Pineywoods second-growth forest dominated by trees of loblolly pine, water oak, and American holly. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly made up bulk of lower woody layer(s). There was no reproduction of loblolly pine in the denser locale of the forest. Neither was there presence of herbaceous species.

Foremost trunk (left foreground) and four pole-size trunks were loblolly pine. Largest tree with straight bole (left midground) was water oak as were the two small saplings still with green leaves growing between the foremost loblolly pine and the large water oak.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

20. Loblolly pine-water oak-American holly subtype of Big Thicket Pineywoods- All-in-one shot of an example of this variant of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type with yaupon and regenerating American holly comprising a lower woody layer and a local opening with longleaf woodoats and other herbaceous species. There was also much reproduction of water oak with numerous small saplings that had retained many of their leaves throughout the usually mild winter of the Big Thicket. Longleaf woodoats and local stands of other herbaceous species were also present though widely scattered.

All of the larger trees in midground were water oak except for one loblolly pine. This was an example that the climatic climax of these forest type is oak and not pine. Both cover types of Loblolly Pine (SAF 81) and Loblolly Pine-Hardwood (SAF 82) (Eyre, 1980) are fire types (ie. only under conditions where fire overrides other components of climate) does this forest vegetation have loblolly pine as a dominant or co-dominant species into climax stage.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

22. In a small clearing- A small clearing provided adequate light for local stands of herbaceous vegetation, woody layers made up of yaupon and regenerated water oak. At edge of clearing the woody shoot of rattan or Alabama supplejack was climbing a young loblolly pine (small pole in right midground).

Species composition of the herbaceous layers was presented in the next slide.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

23. Something to graze- Two views of a local stand of herbaceous species in the understorey of the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest shown and described immediately above. Largest and most common species was cottongrass bulrush followed by green flatsedge, redtop panicgrass, and longleaf woodoats. The latter species more commonly grows by itself as shown above, but it frequently grows in association with other grasses and grasslike plants.

Individual plants of the cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge introduced in these two photographs were shown in more detail in the succeeding four slides.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

24. Cottongrass bulrush, wooly-grass bulrush, or wool-grass (Scirpus cyperinus)- This was one of the most common and largest species of grasslike plants in much of the wetter environments of the loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type in the Big Thicket area of east Texas. Cottongrass bulrush was especially common (and locally dominant) on mesic to wet forest and range sites such as those for loblolly pine and the various forms of "oak flats" or "flatwoods".

The individual plant presented in this and the two slides above the next caption was one of several specimens growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community featured above

Liberty County, Texas. February.

25. Inflorescence of cottongrass bulrush- Two panicles on the same individual plant of cottongrass bulrush introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (one of several such bulrush plants shown in the two photographs preceding that last slide).

More recent taxonomic treatments of the Scirpus species such as that by Diggs et al. (2006) have rearranged many of these once-upon-a-time Scirpus members into such genera as Schoenoplectus, Bolboschoenus, Isolepis, and even Eleocharis! Interestingly, in this bulrush basket upset cottongrass bulrush remained as Scirpus cyperinus (ie. still a true bulrush as it were).

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

27. Plumes in the pines- Panicles of bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest featured here. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) put Erianthus in with an expanded sugarcane genus (Saccharum spp.) and renamed bentawn plumegrass S. brevibarbe var. contortum. Diggs et al. (2006) listed and mapped four former Erianthus species as being in the Pineywoods, including Liberty County, Texas (county where these photographs were taken). Correll and Johnston (1979) in Manual of the Vascular Plant of Texas, still the statewide "bible" of plant taxa, listed three Erianthus species for this "neck of the woods".

Erianthus species are some of the largest grasses native to the Pineywoods. E. contortus is probably the most common of these. Liberty County, Texas. February, hard-grain/shatter stage of phenology.

29. Holly in the stand- Deeper inside the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly stand of flatwoods featured herein (and shown repeatedly above) American holly was becoming the local dominant tree species. Shrub-sized woody plants with persistent green leaves (foreground understorey) included young yaupon, water oak saplings, and American holly saplings and seedlings. Whereas tolerance rating for loblolly pine is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and water oak is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) , American holly is Very Tolerant which is the same as American beech, sugar maple, and flowering dogwood (Wenger, 1984).

In absence of fire, windthrow, logging, and other disturbances (natural or anthropogenic) American holly (or other Very Tolerant species in the Big Thicket like American beech and southern magnolia) eventually become dominant as development of forest vegetation reaches climax. That phenomenon was shown in this photograph where the only seedlings present were those of American holly.

The largest and foremost trunk (right foreground; smooth bark) was a nice, shaply specimen of American holly. This specific plant was used below to describe its species, including another view of this same bole. The medium-sized liana growing up the American holly was some species of grape (Vitis sp.).

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

30. "Hollyer" Pineywoods- On one local part of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly dominated stand shown and described above, American holly was becoming the climax dominant tree species. Saplings of American holly were more common than those of water oak and the only seedlings were those of American holly. There were no saplings (only pole-size trees) of loblolly pine, the tree which clearly dominated the canopy (with water oak as the local associate species) at this subclimax stage. Yaupon, the overall community dominant of a lower woody layer, was common and shared this layer with saplings of water oak and both saplings and seedlings of American holly as was just remarked.

The adult American holly was the same individual whose trunk (with grape vine) was featured in the slide immediately above.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

31. Happy holly happenings- Regeneration (from seed) of American holly on floor of a subclimax loblolly pine-water oak forest. A young sapling of American holly represented the future generation of the climax dominant of this Pineywoods forest range. Yaupon holly, an individual of which was behind the featured holly sapling, was the overall dominant of a lower woody layer. American holly, a Very Tolerant tree species, had successfully reproduced even with this competition. The only herbaceous species was longleaf woodoats.

Another photograph of a small American holly sapling was presented below to show details of holly leaves.

The was the same stand of loblolly pine-water oak-American holly-yaupon-longleaf woodoats-bulrush-flatsedge Big Thicket flatwoods forest as featured above. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

32. Dynasty in the making- This large, symetrical American holly and its progeny (ranging from seedlings to small saplings) were the climax tree species and future dominant of a loblolly pin-water oak-American holly-yaupon holly- longleaf woodoats-bulrush forest range community. American holly is regarded as Very Tolerant (Wenger, 1984) so that in absence of disturbances (eg. repeated forest fires, forest harvests) the Intolerant loblolly pine (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and Intolerant water oak (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) will be succeeded by American holly. Successful regeneration of holly and absence of reproduction bf loblolly pine was shown in these two photographs. Numerous young plants of yaupon were also present.

Besides showing regeneration of American holly, these two slides provided views of a mature American holly showing crown shape and branching pattern typical of this climax hardwood (angiosperm) species. Note that limbs and branches of the holly extended lower on the crown than did those of surrounding loblolly pine and water oak and that, overall, the crown of the holly was substantially larger and fuller than those of the two current dominants of the subclimax flatwoods forest.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

33. Heir-apparent up close- Trunk of a mature American holly, the hardwood species that was successionally ascending to climax dominance with successful reproduction in shade of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly Pineywoods forest. Another view of this same trunk was presented above (complete with the same grape vine).

Extent of shading of forest floor was also typical and indicative of a lower-layer forest environment in which only Toleranmt and Very Tolerant species could regenerate.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

34. Tale of trauma with a position to teach- For reason(s) unknow to the photographer this sapling of American holly was leaning to the stage of being nearly "flat".In spite of such posture the young tree was otherwise "alive and well". The first slide of this sapling provided a better composite view than if it had been vertical like it should have been. The second photograph was a view of branches and leaves on this flattened sapling. Spiney margins of holly leaves were presented to rangemen and foresters unfamilar with this species.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

35. Shinny holly leaves against a background of pine straw- Another small sapling (or large seedling) of American holly (Ilex opaca) growing in shade of loblolly pine, water oak, and its parent which was the large, symmetrical adult holly introduced above. Another living bit of evidence as to the Very Tolerant rating of American holly as well as an example of leaves of this species. Leaves of American holly are vriable in shape, but the margins have spines (sometimes limited to the leaf apex) and are usually scalloped. Leaf blades are shiny green "on top" (upper surface) and pale underneath.

This small tree was in the same flatwoods forest stand as shown and described above.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

36. Flowers and fruit at the same time- Branches of Ilex cornuta var. Burfordii with last year's fruit still present as current year's inflorescences are fully open and ready to produce a new crop. The fruit of Ilex species is a drupe which serves as a concentrate foodstuff (Martin et al., 1951, p. 338). In turn this feeding activity undoubtedly accounts for planting many seeds and subsequent establishment of new holly plants.

Burford holly is one of a number of Ilex species grown in North America. It is a native of China, and while this rangeman author detest most woody exotics that have come to contaminate our native flora, this series of photographs of this introduced ornamental were used to show the flowers and fruits of the larger Ilex species. American holly, the forest Ilex of the Texas Piney Woods (and the southeastern forest in general) is the Christmas holly in North America. It is widely planted as a ornamental and shade tree and as a commercial source of Christmas decoration. The beauty and appropriateness of any holly with its shiny evergreen leaves and the blood (as of the Messiah)-red drupes have proven lasting Xmas symbols that speak for themselves.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

37. Holly pollinators- Pollination, and especially animals as agents of polllination, have intrigued botanists (particulariy ecologists). For example, Dr. Edith Clements was a pioneer ecologist with a fondness for pollinators. Insect pollinators were abundant on the female Burford holly featured in this portion of the text. These included the feral European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and paper wasp () which were included in the tradition of Plant Ecology and to provide instruction in the mutualistic relationship of pollination, a synergism essential for human existence.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

39. American holly in the Texas Piney Woods- Branches of the inntroduced Chinese Burford holly laden with fruit showed how fruitful some Ilex species could be.

Henderson County, Texas. February.

45. Flowers of sweet-gum (Liquidambar stryraciflua)- Sweet-gum is a monecious species with male infloerescences consisting of spherical clusters occurring in an overall raceme-like arrangement (upper structure in this photograph) while female inflorescences consist of solitary globe-shaped clusters at ends of long stems (structures in lower center in photograph). Sweet-gum is in the witch hazel family (Hamamelidaceeae).

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

46. Close-up of monecious flowers of sweet-gum- Clusters of staminate flowers on a racemose inflorescence in center foreground with a pistillate flower cluster in right midground of sweet-gum.

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

47A. Immature fruit of sweet-gum- Details of young fruit of Liquidambar stryraciflua. This fruit type is interpreted as a septicidal capsule, a dry, dehiscent (opening by various structures) fruit that dehisces (opens) through pore-like exits or openings within the septations or partitions of the ripened ovary (Smith, 1977, ps. 65, 66, 307).

Newton County, Arkansas. May.

47B. Mature fruit of sweet-gum- Examples of the two-beaked capsules of sweet-gum after most seeds were shed. The sweet-gum fruit was described by Diggs et al. (1999, p.737) as a "woody globose cluster of two-beaked capsules". These examples were lying on bark of an exposed root of the tree that produced them. Roots of this species commonly protrude above the soil surface. Root protrusion, heavy crops of the semi-woody fruit clusters, and weak wood resulting in frequent branch breakage are features that make sweet-gum a less than ideal shade tree for persnickety people. Picky, picky; sweet-gum grows rapidly and makes fast shade. Sweet-gum leaves produce some of the most brilliant and variously colored foliage of any tree in southern forest. Fruits are hard on bare feet. Damned tenderfoot got no business out here anyway.

Newton County, Arkansas. December.

41. Yaupon or yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria)- Yaupon is one of the most aggressive shrubs in the understorey of the various pine and oak-pine types of the eastern deciduous forest in southeastern North America. It is usually not a dominant shrub in advanced stages of forest succession, but disturbances like logging (and subsequent regeneration methods) shift competitive advantage to this rapidly spreading, evergreen scrub holly allowing it to become a major brush species on regenerating forests and transitory forest ranges. The individual shown here had persisted late into the rotation of a loblolly pine forest.

International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. May.

42A. Girls' time- Flowers at peak-bloom stage on a female yaupon. Yaupon is a dioecious species. Details of a female plant in full bloom were presented.

International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas.April.

43. Longleaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora)- This is one of the more common and important grass species in the shortleaf pine and pine-oak forests. It responds quickly with vigorous growth and reproduction to clearcutting and thinning operations in these forest cover types. Red River County, Texas. July.

Most of the herbaceous understorey species in the various eastern deciduous forest cover types are forbs. Forb is a term used by foresters, rangemen, and wildlifers in reference to any herbs (=. herbaceous plants) that are not grasses or grasslike plants. In other words, forb refers to all soft-stemed dicots and to any monocots that have conspicuous petals. Forb is not a precise botanical term , but rather one used by professionals in the natural resource management fields. Range and forest plants are either 1) woody or 2) herbaceous. The woody plants are either trees or shrubs, the distinction between which is not always obvious. The herbaceous species (herbs) are either grasses, grass-like plants, or forbs. (Together these are generally the five "kinds"-- as in categories or groups not species-- of vascular range and forest plants.)

Some of the more common and conspicuous forbs of the eastern deciduous forest communities were included immediately below. All of these were growing in the Springfield Plateau section of the general Ozark Plateau or Ozark Mountains.

44. Loblolly pine flatwoods- Example of the "pure" cover type of loblolly pine (SAF 82) made up this flatwoods forest community in the Big Thicket. Young, second-growth loblolly pines comprised the entire canopy (crown) layer while yaupon made up the lower woody layer and giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) comprised most of the herbaceous layer. Perennial grasses such as longleaf woodoats and grasslike plants like cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge which were common on adjacent and close proximity forests of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) were much less dense on this forest range stocked with younger (smaller) trees. On local areas most disturbed by forest harvest activities there were some individuals of broomsedge and bushy beardgrass with fewer plants of longleaf woodoats and even density of bentawn plumegrass. While there were widely scattered water oaks stocking of this species was so slight that this forest was a loblolly pine cover type.

Selective (uneven-aged) harvest had taken place on this forest three or four years earlier. Hence, pioneer establishment of the giant ragweed and subsequent release of yaupon.

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

45. Not sharing much- Stand of young loblolly pine on a flatwoods form of Big Thicket Pineywoods resulted in a nearly exclusionary crop, a single-species stand, with almost complete canopy cover of this shade-intolerant subclimax species. Yaupon had developed into a lower woody layer that was sporadic ranging frrom nearly absent to local heavy cover/dense shoots (as in the second of these two slides). Major grass overall was longleaf woodoats though it was absent from local areas of more extreme disturbance. Broomsedge and bushy bluestem were present (some shoots were visible in these and the preceding photograph) on the more seriously disturbed areas, but their cover and density could be described as "few and far between". Plants of bentawn plumegrass were even more uncommon.

Loblolly pines of about all one size (poles) and evidence of high degree of disturbance of soil surface indicated that the clearcutting method of regeneration had been used in silvicultural treatment. This was more obvious int the second of these two photographs. The largest tree in second photograph (right midground) was a water oak that had been spared in the recent clear-cutting operation because it was of no value for pulp or poles (ie. a trash tree). It presence and that of scattered water oak seedlings indicated that this was a subclimax loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) maintained by silviculture as a loblolly pine forest type (SAF 88).

Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

46. Inside the loblolly pine stand- Interior of a single-species stand of young (pole-size) loblolly pine. Yaupon formed a sporadic woody understorey or lower woody (shrub) layer. Otherwise this vegetation was loblolly pine cover type (SAF 82) of an industrial or commercial forest where maximum financial return from the forest resulted from establishment and maintenance of single-species stands (= populations) of loblolly pine. In other words, this was a "rough" form of a loblolly pine planation established by natural regeneration. This form of silviculture (clearcutting method) produced denser stands of loblolly pine with more shade and therefore less herbaceous vegetation, especially less cover and lower density of grasses and grasslike plants, for grazing animals. Larger-size clearings and greater disturbance with more bare soil did, however, create better habitat for pioneer species like giant ragweed and this resulted in superior habitat for some kinds of wildlife like bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).

Presence of saplings of water oak was proof that this was a loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) maintained as the more "pure" loblolly pine forest type (SAF 82) as an economic forest crop (ie. pine wood was more valuable than that from oak in the current market). This loblolly pine stand was in close proximity to the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest displayed and discussed above.

Yaupon was common and formed a lower woody layer. Dwarf palmetto was also present though mostly as isolated plants. There was less longleaf woodoats, broomsedge and bushy bluestem, bentawn plumegrass, cottongrass bulrush, and sedges and flatsedges than on the nearby loblolly pine-hardwood (water oak and American holly) forest. The most common herbaceous plant on this recently harvestly forest was giant ragweed.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Classification units of this forest range vegetation were presented in the two immediately preceding photo captions.

47. Loblolly pine-dominated backwater forest- Another form or subtype(s) of loblolly pine forest range (though one with minimal grazing and browsing resources) in the Pineywoods Region is that (those) that develop on land having ponded water for prolonged periods though not for periods of time consistent with those of swamps. In fact, the common name of loblolly comes from the condition known as a loblolly, a term referring to a mudhole or deep mud puddle, which is an ideal edphic condition for this species (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 93).

This is an exterior view of a loblolly pine-dominated forest that developed on a backwater of the San Jacinto River. Hardly visible on disturbed, bare soil in foreground are many pine seedlings indicative of extensive regeneration of the dominant tree species.Bare limbs and branches are those of water oak, overcup or swamp white oak, and black gum (= black tupelo), the associate species. This forest range vegetation would have to be described as a loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-dwarf palmetto forest. It was another form or variant of flatwoods forest.

Montgomergy County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

48. Next crop of the dominant native and a naturalized alien- At the edge (exterior) of the backwater Pineywoods forest introduced immediately above numerous large seedlings of loblolly (midground) illustrated regeneration by sexual reproduction of this conifer that was dominant in this forest range community. Although both loblolly pine and water oak are rated as Intolerant and subclimax (discussed above for a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest), on this river backwater wetland these two tree species were climax dominants due to natural protection from severe fire and/or as an edaphic climax. Overcup oak and black tupelo were associate species.

The green leaves in background were those of yaupon holly which comprised a lower woody or shrub layer. Dwarf palmetto (none present in this photograph) formed a second shrub lower in height than the yaupon. (These two lower woody layers of vegetation were presented in the immediately succeeding slide.) At local scale there were sapling- and pole size trees of water oak, overcup oak, and blackgum (indicative of regeneration of these hardwood species later than loblolly pine in this sere) that formed a second tree layer. This was not consistent throughout this vegetation.

The large cespitose grass in foreground was a specimen of Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), an introduced or agronomic forage species that is now naturalized throughout the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana. Over its much of its naturalized range Vaseygrass is a highly productive, welcome addition to the often sparse herbaceous understorey of the Pineywoods region. Vaseygrass was dealt with in the chapter, Introduced Forages, under Grasslands.

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

49. Interior of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods-palmetto flatwoods forest- Inside look at the forest range vegetation introduced in the preceding two photographs. This "photo plot" provided a nearly comprehensive sample of the species composition of Pineywoods pine-hardwoods forest. There was no regeneration of the Intolerant loblolly pine beneath canopy of pine, water oak, overcup oak, and black tupelo in contrast to "doghair" stands of seedlings at edge or exterior of this stand as shown above. Saplings and pole-size trees of water, overcup oak and, to lesser extent, black tupelo were present indicating that these hardwood species had regenerated later than loblolly pine in seral development of this forest vegetation. Younger trees of these woody angiosperms did not form a continuous lower tree layer, but this vegetational strata was frequently present. Dwarf palmetto and yaupon made up two lower shrub layers in this vegetation.

Two saplings in foreground were overcup oak (left) and water oak (right).

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

50. Structure and species composition of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest- Two views of lower layers of vegetation in a seasonal wetland forest of loblolly pine, water oak, overcup oak, black tupelo, yaupon, and dwarf palmetto. Large trunk was loblolly pine. On-going regeneration of palmetto was obvious from numerous seedlings of this shrub (eg. in front of pine trunk). Herbaceous species were absent from forest floor which was covered with leaves of tree species.

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

51. Twixt the pines- Among large loblolly pine dwarf or swamp palmetto made up a lower shrub layer (lower than yaupon which constituted another shrub layer) throughout a backwater flatwoods forest. Also below the older (larger) and more scattered pines, water and overcup oak (with occasional black tupelo) formed a discontinuous lower tree layer.

Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. Various units of forest range vegetation were listed in preceding photo captions.

Although loblolly pine is well-adapted to wet soils (as suggested by the designation of "loblolly" in reference to deep mud hole or large mud puddle) is also occupies and even dominates less moist sites. On moist, but well-drained upland habitats throughout the extensive, eastern deciduous forest region loblolly pine frequently grows with various associated species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) explained that for the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) there is a "spectrum of moisture regimes and sites" with hardwood species varying according to these gradients. White oak is one of the more widespread component hardwood species on direr upland sites. Throughout much of the Pineywoods white oak is a major--often dominant--species on various forest cover types including shortleaf pine as well as loblolly pine.

Forests of white oak and shortleaf pine (with associated species) were treated later on in this chapter.

Natural vegetation of an upland (well-drained) forest subtype that was composed of white oak and loblolly pine was presented and described immediately below. This "vegetational sampler" was typical of the interrupted or variously scattered forest communities in the southcentral portion of the Oak-Pine Forest Region in which loblolly pine serves to charactrize this transition from Oak-Hickory Region to the Oak-Pine Region (Braun, 1950, p. 259, 278-279).

55. Upland loblolly pine-white oak forest- Composite view of an upland Pineywoods forest above a small stream in which loblolly pine and white oak were do-dominants of the the canopy layer with progressively lower vegetational layers formed by sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) as a lower tree layer; yaupon holly as a shrub layer; Walter's greenbriar (Smilax walteri), some species of grape (Vitis sp.), and rattan or Alabama supplejack as multi-layer (ground to canopy) shrubs; and a sparse-barely present herb layer made up mostly of longleaf woodoats. Leavaes of tree and shrub species covered the ground level (soil surface) to such degree as to exclude most herbaceous species, including individuals of longleaf woodoats (generally the dominant herb). The small tree with green-tinged, smooth bark and arching over the stream (lower right corner) and the two two smaller trees on the opposite (left) bank were individuals of sweetbay. A woody shoot of grape was in center foreground. The green zone of vegetation was produced by green leaves of the evergreen yaupon.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

56. Up and above a "crick"- Stand of loblolly pine and white oak on an upland site immediately above a small creek in Pineywoods of east Texas. Vertical view of the same forest introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (and from the same-- though closer-in-- vantagepoint) to better show structure and layering of this forest range vegetation. Woody vines of grape and smaller ones of rattan were in foreground. Limb in upper right corner was of sweetbay, the smaller tree species that constituted a lower tree layer of this forest community.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

57. Lumberman's view of a loblolly pine-white oak upland forest- Structure and species composition of an upland white oak-loblolly pine form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwood dominance type. Larger trunks in both photographs are loblolly pine. Ph;otographed immediately following heavy rain shower so bark over some long strip-line areas of pine trunks was darker. Sweetbay formed an interrupted second tree layer. These were present as smaller, shorter trees (large saplings or pole-size: two in front of and to left of foremost pine in first slide; whitish trunk in foreground of second slide). An upper shrub (lower woody) layer comprised of yaupon was not distinct in these slides, but was shown in the six slides of immediately succeeding three sets of slides. Ground surface was covered with mulch or duff layer formed from shed leaves of all species. There was a very sparse understorey made up mostly of Walter's greenbriar that was more shrub than herb. A very sparse, intermittent herbaceous layer was composed mostly of longleaf woodoats (an individual of this species was to immediate left and upslope of the sweetbay in foreground of second slide). There were even more scattered individuals of some unidentifiable Carex species.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

58. Ground level view of a lobolly pine-white oak upland forest- Species make-up and layer arrangement of an upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest was shown to good advantage. This forest community was in the unique Big Thicket portion of the Pineywoods and was featured in this segment of discussion devoted to loblolly pine. Loblolly pine is typically a subclimax stage of forest in the vast eastern deciduous forests of North America. Successional status of white oak varies considerably.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

59. Shrubs beneath the pine and oak- Yaupon or yaupon holly made up a shrub layer in the upland loblolly pine-white oak dominated (canopy or cover dominance) forest that had developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket portion of Texas' Pineywoods. This specific forest stand was shown and described in detail above and below.

Liberty County, Texas. February. Various classification units of this forest vegetation were presented in photo captions herein.

60. Walk through the upland woods- A series opf three photographs taken from about the same angle presented structure and species composition of vegetation in an loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-liana-yaupon- longleaf woodoats upland forest in the Big Thicket portion of the Texas Pineywoods. This "photo stroll" centered on a large white oak (largest tree trunk) near center of photographs. The bark on this old and still alive white oak had sloughed off in patches which were accentuated by a heavy rain moments before this series of photographs was taken.

Smaller, shorter trees were sweetbay which made an interruped lower tree layer.Yaupon formed a shrub layer throughout. A "top-to-bottom" (ground-to-crown canopy) shrub layer consisted of grape, rattan or Alabama supplejack, and Walter's greenbriar. Leaves of all species produced a ground cover layer so thick that there were very few herbaceous species. The most common herb was the perennial grass, longleaf woodoats.

Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

61. Fire-scarred forest veteran- An old white oak on a loblolly pine-white oak dominated upland forest bore testimony to the frequency of past fires. As a general rule, fire in the hardwood-pine cover types of the North American or eastern deciduous forests selects for greater proportions (crown cover, density, dominance, etc.) of pine rather than hardwood species such as the various oaks and hickories. This is most true for the extremely fire-tolerant longleaf pine, but even less fire-tolerant pines like loblolly generally benefit at competitive expense of the angiosperm trees. Furthermore, susceptibility to fire is greater for seedlings, saplings, and small poles than adult hardwood trees. Once hardwoods become established and grow larger they are less susceptible to fire-damage and death.

The ole patriarch of this upland loblolly pine-hardwood forest had obviously been through several surface fires. Past surface fires had burned through the bark of this large white oak which, however, survived quite well as most of its cambium tissue had not been injured. White oak has a variable tolerance response, but is generally rated as Intermediate (in contrast to Intolerance of loblolly pine). White oak is somewhat more tolerant than loblolly pine to drought (Moderate-tolerant vs. Moderate, respectively) while loblolly pine is much more flood tolerant (Moderately vs. Intolerant of white oak) (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-8). Frequent fire shifts the forest environment in favor of loblolly pine.

Leafy plants at base of the white oak were small individuals of yaupon. Sapling behind and to right of white oak was sweetbay, the major species of the lower tree layer.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

62. Walter's greenbriar, coral or red-bead greenbriar,, or sarsaparilla (Smilax walteri)- One of several Smilax species in the Pineywoods Region. This one generally prefers moist to wet habitats, including sandy soils along streams such as that in the loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-yaupon upland forest described here.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

63. Nitty gritty of Walter's greenbriar- Details of leaves and stems of Walter's greenbriar which is only one of various Smilax species in the eastern deciduous forest of North America. This was growing in the understorey of a loblolly pine-white oak-dominated upland forest that developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket.

Liberty County, Texas. February.

64. Thinned out- Stand of loblolly pine thinned for optimum growth of individual trees and wood yield. Yaupon holly comprised a lower, second woody layer. Herbaceous understorey consisted of a diversity of grasses including especially longleaf woodoats, panicgrasses (Panicum and Dichanthium spp.), and paspalums (Paspalum spp. including the naturalized Vaseygrass) along with sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.) and spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.).

Within a relatively short period (probably less than 10-15 years) this stand will become a closed canopy monoculture of plantation loblolly pine like that shown immediately below.

66. Small clear-cut of loblolly pine like that pictured in previous slide— What slash is not used locally as fire wood following pole and/or pulp wood harvest will be burned and the site prepared for replanting which is typically artificial propagation (planting of nursery grown seedlings rather than natural regeneration by seeding from adjacent or scattered remaining trees).

Liberty County, Texas. March. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem).K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest).SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).

67. A loblolly pine plantation eight years following planting of seedlings in a clear-cut like the one immediately above— The plantation understory is being grazing by cattle as a means of biological control of the fiercely competitive weed tree, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), as well as utilization of the native grasses that vary from climax Andropogon and Panicum species to the the threeawns or wiregrasses and crabgrasses (Digitaria spp.). Little bluestem and broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) are the dominant grasses shown here. Native hickory and oak species have regenerated by both coppice sprouting and seedling emergence yet are less a brush problem than seral sweetgum.This illustrates that oak and hickory species are natural dominants of the climax and that the human inputs of forest management are essential to economically raise the crops of pines which are minor climax dominants relative to the hardwoods.Note preferencial grazing first of grasses and secondly of browsing on hardwoods. Pines have not been browsed. Loblolly pine transitory range.Weyerheuser-contracted crop.

LeFlore County, Oklahoma. May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al.(1998). Ouachita Mountains- Athens Plateau Ecoregion, 36a (Woods et al., 2005).

68. Transitory forest range in a 10 to12 year-old hybrid loblolly pine plantation showing ungrazed understory that is tallgrass prairie of little bluestem, big bluestem, broomsedge bluestem, Indiangrass, and side-oats grama. Hardwood species like oaks, hickories, and sweetgum are totally absent due largely to previous heavy browsing by cattle.Weyerheuser trees.

McCurtain County, Oklahoma. July. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Cretaceous Dissected Uplands Ecoregion, .35d (Woods et al., 2005).

70. Vulnerable to fire- Close-up view of a loblolly pine seedling in the cut-over forest shown immediately above. This silvic baby is about as vulnerable as a newborn lamb. The seedling was surrounded by broomsedge bluestem (the Andropogon species closest to it), splitbeard bluestem, little bluestem with dead herbage of Panicum and Paspalum species not far away. This new pine was produced by natural reproduction (seed production, germination, and emergence) and there are frequently too many such seedlings produced so that killing of the vast excess by fire is essential management for efficient, economical production of forest products. On this cut-over forest, however, regeneration was not excessive thus necessitating protection of the next cohort of loblolly pines from fire at this vulnerable stage of their life cycle.

Grazing by cattle (the kind of range animal most likely to consume grass and not browse on pines) would reduce the fuel load produced by grasses (and some grasslike plants and forbs)thereby reducing chances of wild fire that would eliminate the barely adequate stocking of loblolly pine. Grazing of such rank, dormant, and, in instance of broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, unpalatable grasses at this stage of full plant maturity and dormancy is not feasible. Cattle will not graze such herbage as show here (at least not at levels of voluntary forage intake that would be profitable to cattlemen). Rather, grazing should have been done back when these herbaceous species were immature and less unpalatable (ie. get on top and stay on top of the potential fuel).

Harrison County, Texas. December.

71. Waiting to burn and die- A fine loblolly pine seedling in an ocean of grass herbage. Grass material was mostly from broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, species of extremely low palatability. Getting loblolly pine to enough height to withstand a wild fire on this cut-over pine forest is "ify" and one time when even rangemen (if they done a forester's hardhat for a time) find common cause with that otherwise deplorable bruin, Smokey Bear.

The forest range shown here is in the heart of the loblolly pine region and to the west of longleaf pine forest. Thus, wise use of prescribed fire is not as (perhaps not) feasible. Grazing of this regenerating loblolly pine forest by beef cattle would be one of the best--if not the best--practices to maximize the chance of establishing the next crop of wood. Of course, grazing of unpalatable species like broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems has to begin when herbage is young and more acceptable to cattle. Cows and calves would be preferable to steers on low-quality feed such as that seen here because stocker cattle must achieve higher levels of individual performance to be profitable under the almost-always negative price structure (heavier cattle fetch lower prices per cwt.). See there, the ole range professor slipped in one of the Cardinal Principles of Range Management: Proper Kind and Class of Range Animal (in this case, class as to sex of animal).

Harrison County, Texas. December.

Goodwin (1977, p.99) noted that "forestry is in the porcess of adjusting from an extractive to a generative industry as scientific forest manatement practices ..." become widely adopted (at least in the industrialized democracies). The central silvicultural practices of scientific forestry in the southern pines, especially lobolly pine in the Texas Pineywoods, are clearcutting following by artificial regeneration (ie. tree planting: planting nursery raised pine sedlings immediately or quickly after even-age harvest by clearcutting). a major component of this even-age management is the raising of hybrid loblolly pine and, usually, in pine plantations. .

A forest clearcut is a textbook example of denudation  the term used by Clements to designate disturbance of existing vegetation to the degree or extent that recovery (restoration) of vegetation on the sere (ie. revegetation= vegetation development by  plant succession) would commence and proceed progressively by the combination of processes which cumulatively resulted in the phenomenon of plant migration. (Weaver and Clements, 1938, ps. 3-4, 117-131). Denudation is the essence of the initial cause of plant community development.

This section treated in more detail the scientific production of loblolly pine wood porducts by standard practices of industrial forestry. Examples were from the Texas Pineywoods as shown.

74. Still raw and bloody- Land on which second-growth loblolly pine had been harvested by clearcutting less than two weeks prior to time of photograph. Pines of mature, adult age and size (about 45 years old and 20 inches plus DBH) had been felled by machine rotary saw. No post-harvest site preparation on this freshly cleared land had been done this soon following logging.

Loblolly pine of somewhat younger age and smaller size were in the block or stand in the background. These photographs presented an example of plantation forestry at the very beginning (just prior to tree replanting) and the near-end (only a few years before logging) of a cycle (a rotation) spanning about a half century.A wood crop of saw logs nearing maturity (harvest stage) was adjacent to (behind in these slides) ground on which a mature crop of poles had just been harvested. Solomon knew the routine: "... a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" (Ecclesiastes 3: 2).

Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

75. Scabbed and hairing over- Evening sunlight highlighted a clearcut on which 40 to 50 year-old saw logs had been harvested the preceding winter. Seral range vegetation on this clearcut was at end of the first full growing season following logging. The first year of the pioneer stage of secondary succession was drawing near. Individual plants of warm-season species were nearing phenological maturity as shortening daylength and cooler temperatures of early autumn foretold of the first frost and onset of a mild east Texas winter. A "fresh-cut" forest had formed its successional "scab" and the pioneer plant community provided cover of newly bared, erosion-susceptible soil to set the stage for forest restoration. This is the dynamics of vegetation that applied ecologists like Henry Chandler Cowles and Frederic Edwards Clements documented and described. Dynamic vegetation is the material and process by which foresters and rangemen grow plant crops of fiber, fuel, and feed on a sustainable basis while protecting and wisely using the necessary natural resources.

Plant species included those of annual, biennial, and perennial life cycles; herbaceous and woody tissues; native and exotic origins; and weedy and humanly beneficial features. The dominant and tallest grass was pine bluestem (Andropogon divergens). Arrowfeather threeawn (Aristida purpurascens) was the associate grass species. There were some annual threeawns including old-field threeawn (A. oligantha) and churchmouse threeawn (A. desmantha). Several species of rosette panicgrasses (Panicum, subgenus Dichanthelium) were in vegetative stages that could not be identified to species level. Bahiagrass (Psapalum notatum) and Vaseygrass (P. urvillei), introduced pasture grasses, were present but much less abundant that the two preceding species. There was only limited (very sparse cover) of hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), a typical annual and exotic pioneer species. Similarly, there was only limited cover of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus). Hence, most grass cover was perennial. and native, higher seral more than lower seral, and it was cespitose (bunchgrass) more than sod-forming in life form.

Major forbs included yankeeweed (Eupatorium compositifolium), late thoroughwort or autumn boneset (E. serotinum), and hogwort or wooly croton (Croton capitatus). Giant ragweed, a widely distributed and common native pioneer species was not recorded on this clearcut (this observer could have overlooked it, but if present it minor compared to those listed. The most common shrub species was American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana).

The tree species with greatest cover and general abundance was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and "no surprise there". The distant, second-most abundant tree was southern red oak (Quercus falcata). Third tree species in relative rank of abundance was the dreadfully invasive alien, Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum). The conventional observation among foresters has been that Chinese tallow tree readily comes in on clearcuts, but that it cannot effectively compete with native hardwoods and, therefore, poses no serious problem to reforesttion and loblolly pine production in the Texas Pineywoods. (Hope they're right.).

There was natural reproduction of loblolly pine on this clearcut (example pine seedlling shown below), but this was not common and it was far less than would be required for rapid reforestation and production of the next wood crop.

Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

76. A closer look at clearcut recovery- View of the loblolly pine clearcut at end of first full growing season following logging. Hogwort, a native annual forb, was featured (lower right corner) along with yankeeweed, late or fall boneset, and American beauthberry, the most abundant shrub species on this clearcut (center front midground and left foreground).

Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

77. Hardwoods came in almost immediately on a loblolly pine clearcut- Secondary plant succession on cutover Pineywoods forests progresses at a comparatively faster rate than succession on old fields. Here sweetgum, largest plant, was accompanied by a new southern red oak (to immediate left of the sweetgum). Both of these plants were resprouts from small saplings that had been sawed off during clearcutting. First-year shoots (stump sprouts, water shoots, suckers) of these two hardwood species were robust and well-established. The author could not find even one pine seedling on this clearcut. It ws likely that seedlings of loblolly pine would emerge in the next year or two by which time hardwoods will be on their way toward dominance of the vegetation.

This phenomenon of rapid establishment by angiosperm species is why severe competition between hardwood and conifer so strongly favors oaks, hickories, and sweetgum over even the fast-growing loblolly pine. It also showed why foresters sometimes rely on selective herbicides tand/or livestock grazing to control hardwood species. More importantly, the difference in rate of growth and plant establishment is why planting larger, nursery raised, young, hybrid loblolly pine greatly reduces rotation time.

Viewers should not be confused by plant life in the midground of this photograph. Vaseygrass, the tall grass plants right behind the baby trees, was growing on a highway (Texas 294) shoulder and was outside of the clearcut.

Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

78. Composites on a clearcut- The Compositae is the largest vascular plant family (based on number of species) on North American rangeland and forest. It is also usually the family that provides the greatest forb cover. This situation obtained on this loblolly pine clearcut as was shown in photographs presented above. In this slide an individual of late or autumn boneset or thoroughwort was flanked left and right by yankeeweed. These two Eupatirium species were dominant forbs on this clearcut during the first growing season for warm-season plant species.

Anderson County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage for boneset and late seedling stage for the yankeeweed in left foreground.

80. Arrowfeather threeawn (Aristida purpurascens)- This specimen (sexual shoots shown in second photograph were on the same plant) was growing on the loblolly pine clearcut described herein. A. purpurasecens was the associate grass species on this clearcut (pine bluestem was the dominant). Individuals of this species tend to be large plants as shown here. Arrowfeather threeawn is obviously a cespitose species (first photograph), but it does have short rhizomes which is an usualy feature in Aristida (Gould, 1975, ps. 382, 390-39).

Anderson County, Texas. October; grain-shatter phenological stage.

81. Feathered panicle- Details of arrowfeather threeawn, a perennial Aristida species that was the associate grass on a loblolly pine clearcut in Texas Pineyuwoods at end of the first full growing. (This panicle was on the plant introduced in the immediately preceding two photographs.) Aristida has consistently been one of the most taxonomically challenging and controversial genera in regards to interpretation and delineation of species. A. purpurasecens is one of the more readily distinguished and morphologically consistent Aristida species, at least in Texas.

Anderson County, Texas. October; grain-shatter phenological stage.

84. Brush and weeds with the young pines- A four-to six year old plantation of hybrid loblolly pine with diverse combination of pioneer and early seral herbaceous and woody species. Major hardwood tree species were sweetgum, water oak, red maple (Acer rubra), willow oak (Quercus phellos) and southern red oak (Q. falcata) in that approximate order of foliar cover. . The major (most abundant) shrubs were eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior)and southern wax-myrtle (Myrica cerifera) followed by various greenbriars (Smilax spp.). Major forbs were yankeeweed, several goldernrods with the most common being tall golderrod (Solidago altissima), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemissifolia), and hogwort or wooly croton. The most common grass was purpletop. The largest, most conspicuous grass was narrow plumegrass (Erianthus constrictus). Other grasses included the naturalized and regionally ubiquitbious bahiagrass, naturalized and taller-growing Vaseygrass, broomsedge bluestem, pitchfork paspalum (Paspalum bifidum), thin or thinseed paspalum (P. setaceum), brownseed paspalum (P. plicatum), and, the two annuals, hairy crabgrass and old-field threeawn.

This loblolly pine plantation was not being grazed by livestock, and from all appearances had not been stocked with domestic animals since tree-planting. All this part of the Texas Pineywoods was subject to browsing by free-ranging white-tailed deer. This forest was not enclosed by high game fences. Proper grazing/browsing by livestock might in theory have reduced cover of hardwoods, and most certainly would have resulted in some use of palatable grasses like narrow plumegrass and the native Paspalum species. Overstocking this transitiory plantation range with livestock, especially grass-preferring cattle, would almost certainly have resulted in increased cover of unpalatable forbs (ie. weeds) including yankeeweed and goldenrod and brushy shrubs like sea-myrtle or eastern baccharis. Proper livestock management (especially the correct stocking rate) on pine plantations can be a major management practice for enhancing pine establishment through reduced competition, especially from fast-growing hardwood tree species like sweetgum.

Presence of seral forbs, shrubs, and trees (weeds and brush under management of this intended wood crop) clearly increased feed and cover for wildlife over what would have been present with 'clean-farming" of a loblolly pine monocluture.

Cherokee County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

85. Close quarters- Two views to zoom in on the spatial association of four to six year-old loblolly pines and various weed and brush species in a plantation in the central Texas Pineywoods. The most obvious forb (stooped or bowed-down shoots) was yankeeweed. Major hardwoods (background) were sweetgum and water oak. Eastern baccharis and southern wax-myrtle were locally the most shrubs. Most of the grass biomass in these "photoplots" was purpletop.

Cherokee County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

86. Another composite in the loblolly pine plantation (just what we needed)- Another pioneering to early seral composite that is common in pine plantations throughout the Texas Pineywoods is the shrub or suffrutescent forb known variously as eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior). This species is also very common throughout much of the Gulf Region of North America, including the adjacent Coastal Prairie and Marshes Vegetational Area in Texas where it has to have high tolerance to salt in its habitat.

Cherokee County, Texas. October

87. Eastern baccharis, sea-myrtle, or consumption-weed (Baccharis halimifolia var. angustior)- Two plants of a woody composite that survives in a wide diversity of habitats ranging from coastal grasslands, forest openings, old fields ("go-back land"), and cut-over forests. Sea myrtle is found as far east as the Atlantic Coast in Massachusetts (Fernald, 1950, p. 1448). In east Texas it occurs in the Pineywoods, Coastal Prairies and Marshes, and Post Oak Savannah vegetationa areas. The examples presented here (and immediately below) were growing in the plantation of young loblolly pine being featured here.

Under management goals of plantation forestry any non-crop species can be viewed as noxious (= pest) plants, either weeds (herbaceous plants) or brush (woody plants). Eastern baccharis could be categorized as a brush species, but it like other non-wood crop plant is likely of some benefit to wildlife which on many forest opertions might be a secondary crop (the egress fee being a major source of revenue to the firm).

Cherokee County, Texas. October; peak bloom phenological stage.

88. A late-bloomer- Leaders of male eastern baccharis or consumption-weed. All Baccharis species are dioecious. B. halimifolia was represented by this male that was caught on Kodachrome doing his thing in a young plantation of loblolly pine.

Cherokee County, Texas. October; peak bloom phenological stage.

90. Damnyankee plant- Yankee weed or yankeeweed (Eupatorium compostifolium) growing at end of a row of lobololly pine in a plantation in the northern portion of Texas Pineywoods. The traditional (and accepted as correct when used as a descriptively deragotary term) use of "damnyankee" as a single and unhyphenated word can be traced back in American history at least as far as when a woman explained to President Abraham Lincoln that it was one word.Yankee weed is a pestiferous semi-woody composite that is one of the more widespread and abundant weeds on clearcuts, newly replanted forests, and pine plantations (especially those with comparatively young saplings). Yankeeweed has been shown as one word as, for example, by Grelen and Hughes (1984, ps. 99, 100).

Like eastern baccharis or sea myrtle introduced above, the categorization of yankee weed as a generally noxious species should not prejudice students, foresters, and land-owners from appreciating the benefits provided by typically seral (ruderal) species. Some of the advantageous "services" provided by weeds and brush at certain population densities include cover for erosion-susceptible soils disturbed by silvicultural practices as well as for wildlife such as upland game species.

Pine plantation in Houston County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

91. Yankeeweed in a paired comparison of light conditions- A single plant of Eupatorium compostifolium growing in a plantation of yound loblolly pine was photographed twiceover a period of less than two minutes under conditions of full-sun (left slide) and overcast (right slide) sky. Occasionally people will argue with this photographer that the most revealing photographs of range plants (photographs that show botanical features to greatest advantage) are taken under overcast or generally cloudly skies. This comparison will let viewers see for themselves. Damnyankee cloud-worshipers.

The top-heavy, drooping or stooped habit shown in this individual is very typical of this species at peak biomass and, especially, when bearing inflorescences and fruit.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

92. A more intimate view of a damnyankee plant- Details of leaves and and flowers on branches of yankeeweed in a loblolly pine plantation. This plant was growing in the same stand of planted loblolly pine as the plant presented in the preceding two photographs.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; full-bloom stage of phenology.

93. A tallgrass species in the pine plantation- Narrow plumegrass (Erianthus constrictus) in the dormant stage was the featured species is this mixture of forbs, shrubs, and needles of loblolly pine on the plantation described at this juncture. Narrow plumegrass is one of three Erianthus species indigenous to the Texas Pineywoods. As implied by both common and scientific name the constricted panicle is the key morphological feature of this species.

Bent-awn plumegrass (E. contortus) is another Erianthus species that is widely distributed and locally dominant in the Pineywoods. That species was presented above in this Loblolly Pine section. The large size and rank growth feature of Erianthus species limits their palatability to grazing animals, but they produce plentiful herbage and are decreasers in grazing response thus serving as indicator plants on Pineywoods forest range.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; plants in dormancy.

94. A contracted affair- Contracted panicle of narrow plumegrass on a four- to six-year-old loblolly pine plantation in central Pineywoods of east Texas. This one had to be photographed on a cloudy, breezy morning resulted in a blurred close-up (second slide) of this interesting--and quite fertile--inflorescence. On the disturbed soil of pine plantations Erianthus species typically occur as isolated individuals of in small groups. Their presence affords excitement among grassmen, especially those who are merely visitors to the Pineywoods.

Pine plantation in Cherokee County, Texas. October; dormant phenological stage.

'95. 'round the stump- A rotting stump of loblolly pine from the preceding wood crop was surrounded by a host of pioneer and early seral forbs and shrubs (ie. weeds and brush in the current young tree crop) on a four- to six-year-old plantation of the next rotation of loblolly pine. Yankeeweed (left side of stump) was overall the dominant forb on this plantation in the Texas Pineywoods. Southern wax-myrtle (larger plant at right sided of stump) was a major shrub. The other principal shrub was sea-myrtle or eastern baccharis, a specimen of which was in background (upper left corner). Tall goldenrod was the showy yellow forb in left-center midground. This local assemblage was a "sample plot" of lower layers in this pine plantation.

Cherokee County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

96. Natural reproduction- This seedling of loblolly pine was one of the relatively few of its species that came from natural reproduction (germinated from seed produced by a member of a previous crop of loblolly pine) on this clearcut and current plantation. The small size of this little tree as compared to that of human-planted trees (currently, saplings) in the four-to six-year-old plantation explained why on commercial (industrial) forests nursery grown hybrid pines are planted (by machine nontheless) instead of waiting on the much slower natural reproduction from seed in the on-location soil. Hybrid nursery stock also have the advantage of superior genetics for more rapid growth (meaning less time required for trees to reach harvest size) in addition to being older and larger when planted than on-site seedlings (ie. boughten seedlings have a head start on "home-grown" ones).

Houston County, Texas. October.

97. "Pines in lines"- This expression and the equally terse, "Planting pines in a line", sums up east Texas foresters' description of commercial forestry in the Pineywoods. Varietal stock (clonal material) of some of the most rapid growing loblolly pines serves as the germ plasm for pines seedlings planted in plantations of industrial forests where trees are grown almost exclusively for wood commodities (pulp or sawtimber). Shown here and in several sets of slides immediately below was still yet another plantation of fast-growing loblolly pine. Pines of varietal stock grow at such rapid rates that it is difficult to know the exact age of the plantation without being told or knowing personally when loblolly pines were planted.

Loblolly pine managed as plantation forest generally have a rotation of 25 years ( sometimes as low as 22 or even 20 years depending on site potential and favorability of weather during the period of tree growth). Loblolly pine produced from clonal matieral can reach 15 to 16 inches DBH at 20 years. In fact, some loblolly pine can grow an inch in diameter per year. Even in the first year (ie. at one year of age) a seedling can grow to a height of six to seven feet (Michael Fountain, Professor of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin University; personal communication).

The loblolly pine plantation presented here consisted of larger saplings (probably a year or two older and a few feet taller) than those of the loblolly pine planting described above. It was possible that site production potential varied between these two plantations, but the most obvious difference was lower cover, density, and relative abundance of weeds and brush on this plantation.

Non-crop plants were present in this pine stand at relative proportions that would still furnish some forage, browse, and cover for livestock and wildlife, but at comparative levels that were likely adequate though more consistent with efficient wood fiber production (greater tree growth rate and more profit per acre). Sweetgum was the "number one" hardwood tree species on this plantation with young sweetgum trees clearly visible in both this and the next pair of photographs. Cover and density of oak species and weedy composites was much less than in the loblolly pine plantation presented immediately preceding this plantation.

Rows of loblolly pine were evident in this and the next two sets of paired slides.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

98. Rows and weeds- A plantation of hybrid loblolly pine of about six to eight years of age in the central Texas Pineywoods. Weed trees, of which sweetgum was far and away the most common, and miimal cover of herbaceous weeds were featured in these two photographs. At this stage in the rotation there was ample herbaceous cover to provide feed for beef cattle. Sweetgum and scattered oaks along with shrubs offered good yields of browse. Mast, in the form of nuts (such as acorns), was not common given limited number and small size of oaks, but fruits such as those provided by American beautyberry, sumac, and even grapes were generally more abundant due largely to earlier sexual reproduction--fruit production--than in larger, slower-maturing species like oaks.

Forage was provided by purpletop (the grass with herbage yield greater than any other), naturalized bahiagrass, pitchfork paspalum, thinseed or thin paspalum, naturalized bermudagrass and Vaseygrass. The greatest number of important forage-producing grasses were introduced species. The major forb was , but yankeeweed and hogwort or wooly croton were very common at this early autumn period on this as well as other plantations and clearcuts in this area.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

99. "We're all in our places"- Hybrid loblolly plants planted in rows in a plantation in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Spacing of trees and microhabitat (of which space and light are major limiting factors or plant growth resources) for smaller, shorter-growing herbaceous and woody species was evident in these two photogrphs. Some of the major herbaceous plants were yankeeweed, hogwort or wooly croton, purpletop, bahiagrass, bermudagrass, Vaseygrass, pitchfork paspalum, thin or thinseed paspalum, and broomsedge bluestem. Although purpletop, the grass with most biomass at this season, was native it was naturalized introduced grasses (bahiagrass, Vaseygrass, and bermudagrass, were the major ones) that produced most of the limited herbaceous biomass. Sweetgum was the hardwood species that provided the most potential browse. Therefore sweetgum was also the major weed or noncrop tree species and the tree posing the greatest competition for loblolly pine.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

100. Feed in and between the rows- Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), the prominent shrubs in the foreground of both slides, and various species of both native and introduced (and now naturalized) grasses grew among five- to seven-year-old loblolly pines in intrarow (within rows) and interrow spaces of a loblolly pine plantation to provide feed for range animals such as beef cattle, white-tailed deer, and bobwhite quail. Most of the grass biomass in the herbaceous layer shown here was purpletop. The second and third most important shrub from standpoint of biomass (and potential browse production) on this plantation was grape (Vitis sp. with species unknown) and American beautyberry.

Plantations of loblolly pine like this one produce herbage (herbage becomes forage when it is eaten by animals) and browse for livestock and wildlife at earlier periods in the forest rotation. This is the general stage of the tree crop cycle when pines are still small enough that there is adequate light and, secondly, resources like space and soil moisture to permit continued survival of these feed-providing plant species. Forests like those of loblolly pine plantations are transitory range because they provide a grazable/browseable understorey (lower layers of forest vegetation) only until tree crowns grow large enough that there is a more-or-less closed canopy that precludes light from reaching the forest floor. This temporary forest feature of range is an integral aspect of the rotation as the tree crop is in transition from young to adult trees. When pines reach maturity (achieve some size and state of wood development) they are mature or "ripe". In this point in their life cycle trees have grown to harvest stage of the wood crop (ie. their trunks or boles are large enough to market as pulp or lumber). Trees are then felled and hauled to the mill. This makes plant growth factors once again available for the next crop of loblolly pine-- and grasses, forbs, shrubs, and hardwood trees that provide transitory range in the next rotation.

Rotation is the term applied to even-aged forests and regeneration systems for the period of time between regeneration (replanting trees in loblolly pine plantations like the ones described here) and harvest, the final cutting, of that crop of trees (Helms, 1998).

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

101. Two lessons in one- This pair of slides demonstrated animal feed as a secondary crop to pine trees and the faster rate of artificial vs. natural regeneration. The understorey in a plantation of of five- to seven-year-old loblolly pines in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Both photographs presented the grass-dominated herbaceous layer below planted loblolly pines. The most important grass species in these two "photopuadrants" were purpletop, bahiagrass, Vaseygrass, common bermudagrass, pitchfork paspalum, and thin paspalum. The native purpletop accounted for most of the grass standing crop at this point in early autumn.

Also in this lower layer of plantation forest vegetation (at this point in the rotation) were seedlings (at least six were clearly visible) of loblolly pine that germinated and emerged from seeds produced from previous crops of pines. The planted hybrid loblolly pines towered over the naturally reproduced seedlings to explain to students why on industrial forests like the ones presented in this section foresters and landowners use nursery raised young trees. Older aged and larger seedlings at time of machine planting (hence, more hardy young trees) as well as faster tree growth rate achieved through plant breeding are the main factors that accounted for the great discrepancy in size between artificial (planted) reproduction and natural (on-site germination-emergence) reproduction.

This loblolly pine plantation had not been grazed by livestock during either of the last two years (waarm growing seasons). Grazing, if any, by livestock before that period was unknown to this author.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

102. A fork other than that of a pine tree- Individual plant of pitchfork paspalum (Paspalum bifidum) shown in the first slide and bases of several plants of this species presented in the second slide that were growing in the herbaceous layer of the loblolly pine plantation featured here.

Houston County, Texas. October; phenological stage varied from anthesis to mid-maturity of grain.

104. Slicked off not all that long ago- A fairly large clearcut (by east Texas standards) of second-growth loblolly pine as it appeared about three and a half months following logging of half century-old trees (approximately 20+ inch DBH) by means of mechanical rotary saw. (Chainsaws have about gone the way of crosscut saws and double-bit axes as harvest tools for logs.)

Pioneer vegetation on this clearcut included peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea), black cherry (Prunus serotina), smooth sumac, Vaseygrass, hairy crabgrass, sharppod morningglory or tievine (Ipomoea cordatotriloba= I. trichocarpa), and the invasive Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica). Sweetgum was absent from the vegetation at this early time following harvest.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

105. Plantation of loblolly pine approaching mature stage- Sequence of views showing structure and species composition of a second-growth, nearly-mature loblolly pine forest was shown in this series of photographs . This second-growth stand was a nearly mature (DBH roughly 15-20 inches; tree age about 45 years) plantation that was conterminous with the recent clearcut described immediately above. Past management of this stand was unknown, but it had been thinned. Charred pine trunks provided circumstantial evidence of prescribed burning (at least convincing evidence of past burning, planned or othewise). The plantation had not been grazed by livestock. White-tailed deer freely ranged throughout this forest.

Major shrubs included peppervine and American beautyberry which were generally the understorey woody species with greatest cover. (Peppervine was also one of the most abundant shrubs on the adjacent, recent clearcut.) Other important shrubs included smooth sumac, yaupon, grape (Vitis sp., but species unknown), and the alien Japanese honeysuckle. Tree species included black cherry, southern red oak, Shumard's or, sometimes, just Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii), and southern sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana). Sweetgum was absent.

Herbaceous species were extremely limited in this closed-canopy stand of adult pines. The forb most abundant (at least at this autumn season) was tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima) which was widespread thoughout this general area. Tall goldenrod (and other) forbs were sparse to absent from the forest floor deeper inside this plantation. Grasses were "scarce as hens' teeth" if not absent.

There was very limited reproduction of loblolly pine, an Intolerant species. Most pine regeneration was on the perimeter of this stand (see below). Even at the edge of this plantation pine reproduction was noticeably limited, and much less than than that of hardwood species.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

106. Deeper into the stand of maturing loblolly pine- More interior views of a mature or nearly mature loblolly pine plantation introduced in the preceding sequence of three slides. Mature is a term applied to an individual tree or an even-aged stand that 1) is capable of sexual reproduction, 2) has reached most of its potential growth in height, or 3) has grown to merchantable size or dimensions (Helms, 1998). In the area in which this stand was growing the site index is set for 50 years (ie. standard or typical plantation of loblolly pine reaches harvest age for saw timber at about 50 years).

The major shrub at local spatial scale in understorey of this stand was American beautyberry. Other shrubs included peppervine, yaupon, smooth sumac, and Japanese honeysuckle. Hardwood tree species included black cherry, Shumard oak, southern red oak, southern sweetbay, It was noteworthy that sweetgum, the regionally ubiquitous pioneer tree species, was absent from this stand of almost-mature loblolly pine. Species of grrasses and grasslike plants were also not present (at least not at meaningful cover, density, etc.). Tall goldenrod, the major forb on edge of this plantation, was not growing deeper in the interior of this closed-canopy stand.

Smaller branches of loblolly pine on the forest floor had been torn off by winds of a recent hurricane that barely brushed this area six weeks earlier.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

107. Ground level under nearly ripe loblolly pine- The lowest layer of range vegetation in a plantation of second-growth adult (nearly harvest-ready logs) loblolly pine ( roughly 15-20 inches DBH; tree age approximately 45 years) in central Pineywoods of east Texas. Lower layers of forest vegetation were best developed at the edge of the stand which was what was presented in these two "photoquadrants". American beautyberry was the dominant understorey species in the area of these two "nested photoplots". American beautyberry and peppervine swapped roles as understorey dominant back and forth nearly throughout the forest floor of this plantation. Here along the perimeter there were a few loblolly pine seedlings, but these were of much less cover and density than hardwood species including Shumard oak, southern red oak, black cherry, and southern sweetbay. There was also considerable cover of the invasive alien Japanese honeysuckle.

Downed boughs of loblolly pine (visible in both of these photographs) were minor wind damage from a hurricane that "just caught the edge" of this part of the Texas Pineywoods six weeks earlier.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

108. Pepper in the pines- Shoot tips of peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea) growing in the lower woody layer of the understorey of a plantation of second-growth adult (nearly mature) loblolly pine in Texas Pineywoods. These peppervine plants were growing in the stand of about approximately 45 year-old (15-20 inches DBH) pines featured immediately above. Peppervine swapped places with American beautyberry as the dominant shrub on this forest range. Peppervine is in the Vitaceae along with various species of grape and Virginia creeper.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

109. Blacker than pepper- Two fruits of peppervine at shoot apex. This was a close-up shot of the tip of the shoot in the second slide shown immediately above. The fruit of peppervine is interpreted as a berry (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 1066). While this member of the grape family produces seed (one to several per berry) most reproduction is asexual with new clonal shoots "coming up everywhere" (and at considerable distances from the parent plant). This feature facilitates propagation of this plant as a native ornamental shrub widely used by local hillfolk in certain locales. This abundant "long distance" sprouting is also the basis of the colloquial name of "Arkansas traveler" (a most fitting title though one seldom seen in the scientific literature). But you saw it here!

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

110. Climax grass on seral satges of forest- Hairawn muhly--known also as Gulf muhly, mist grass, pink muhly-- (Muhlenbergia capillaris) is an eragrostoid grass that responds to grazing as a decreaser. In other words, hairawn (or sometimes simply hair) muhly is a climax species. This successional status, however, is for more open and not dense or closed canopy forests. On transitory forest ranges like many loblolly pine forests, especially plantations, hairawn muhly is (or will be) absent from forests of mature loblolly pine (ie closed-canopy forests). This grass--along with almost all other herbaceous species--was absent from the nearly mature (roughly 45 year-old pines) loblolly pine stand featured immediately above.

Hairawn muhly is well-adapted to the forest site (and various others) featured here. Hair muhly is a native in natural loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forests typical of the Pineywoods. Artificial or highly man-modified (anthropogenic) forests like loblolly plantations result in ultimate exclusion of this decreaser grass. The specimens shown here were growing on a plot at the East Texas Plant Materials Center adjacent to the stand of the adult and nearly mature (15 to 20 inch DBH) loblolly pine presented immediately above.

Angelina National Forest, Nacogodoches County, Texas. October.

111. More open canopy and more abundant feed- A loblolly pine forest of widely spaced, naturally regenerated, almost-mature trees--and with well-developed lower layers of vegetation--was introduced in these "from some distance" photographs. These first two slides presented physiogonomy, structure, and overall species composition of this Pineywoods forest range that represented the more native (naturally occurring) form or variant of the loblolly pine forest cover type.

The loblolly pine stand featured here and the two stands presented in several subsequent photographs were examples of permanent forest range in contrast to transitory forest range which is the more typical condition or state of most loblolly pine plantations. Under the typical, the standard practice of, plantation forestry tree density is high enough that eventually these industrial (commercial) forests develop a closed canopy that effectively excludes light below tree crowns which results in loss of lower forest layers and nothing except pine needle-covered forest floors. In such plantation forests, especially those in which trees are grown to sawtimber size, a grazable/browsable understorey is temporary and merely a transition stage to a closed-canopy stand of mature lobolly pine. In the loblolly pine forest featured here, density of adult pines was low enough that these stands could not become closed-canopy forests (ie. range was not transitory). This pair and the next nine sets of slides with their captions presented a photographic range reconnaissance of natural reproduction, second-growth loblolly pine. This forest range vegetation was more characteristic of native loblolly pine Pineywoods forests. There was considerable difference in cover (relative and absolute) of hardwood and herbaceous (largely grass) plants, and their respecitve layers in this vegetation, as a result of different frequencies of prescribed fire.

This second-growth loblolly pine forest (this and the various stands presented in this section) were established by air-seeding following clearcutting. Subsequent to tree establishment by aeiral seeding the forest was thinned twice (up to time of these photographps). It was renowned as some of the finest habitat for eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in the Texas Pineywoods. It was also one of the best examples of the loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest type currently in existence in this region.

Age of adult loblolly pine ranged from approximately 35 to 50+ years. This was a greater range in age than that shown in plantations of planted trees such as the one presented immediately above. There was also "daylight and dark" difference in amount of herbaceous vegetation, especially of grasses, and, in some infrequently burned locations, of hardwood species in lower layers of this loblolly pine forest range. The major hardwood tree species in the vegetation shown in these two slides was black or Texas hickory (Carya texana). There was also some sweetgum, the major hardwood pioneer tree species. The dominant herbaceous species based on aspect abundance (relative foliar cover, density, frequency) was pinehill bluestem or eastern little bluestem (Andropogon divergens= Schizachyrium scoparium var. divergens). Longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessilfolia) was the associate grass and herbaceous species. The most common (abundant) forb at this early autumn season was tall goldenrod. (This species was also the principal forb at outer areas and perimeter in the loblolly pine plantation just described above.) Typical pioneer (weedy) forbs like the various composites growing on clearcuts and young loblolly pine plantations (shown above) were absent from this forest that was populated by mostly mature pine.

Shrubs were comparatively uncommon in this forest range. Frequent prescribed fire was undoubtedly a major factor responsible for this phenomenon, but even in portions that had been burnt infrequently, and supported considerable cover of hardwood tree seedlings and stump shoots, shrubs were generally limited. Smooth and winged or shining sumac (Rhus glabra and R. copallina, respectively) were the major shrubs throughout much, if not most, of this forest. This was consistent with regular forest burning. Rhus species typically respond with some of the most prolific sprouting of any shrubs following range fires, especially under a regime of frequent, low intensity fire. American beautyberry, often the dominant shrub in both loblolly and shortleaf pine forests in the Pineywoods, was the second most common shrub in this forest where it was dominant only at local scale.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

112. Under more and younger pines- Understorey of a second-growth, naturally regenerated stand of loblolly pine that was burned periodically by prescription. Pine trees in this stand were younger and smaller and growing at greater density than those shown in the preceding and subsequent photographs. There was also greater canopy cover than in stands of older, larger, and more widely spaced loblolly pine elsewhere in this forest. Pinehill bluestem and longleaf woodoats were the dominant and associate herbaceous species in this stand as in those with more mature pines, but American beautyberry was the locally dominant shrub more often than where tree density and crown cover were less. In this latter situation sumac species tended to be dominant shrubs or, under less frequent prescribed burning, young hardwoods like black hickory and sweetgum had greater cover in the understorey and "crowded out" shrub species. (These situations were shown below.)

Forbs were not common. Most of these were composites like tall goldenrod or sharp gayfeather or sharp blazingstar (Liatris acidota).

There was some loblolly pine regeneration in the understorey of this stand (first of these photographs), which though limited, was more than adequate to maintain current stocking of pine.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

113. Pines and pinehill bluestem- Physiogonomy and community structure of this loblolly pine-pinehill bluestem second-growth forest with its open (irregular, incomplete) canopy from widely scattered adult pines and a grassy understorey that included a few hardwood seedlings/saplings provided ideal cattle range and good habitat for eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), the targeted wildlife crop. Longleaf woodoats was the "also ran" associate herbaceous species. There were almost no forbs other than widely--very widely--scattered plants of sharp gayfeather and tall goldenrod.

This local stand of loblolly pine forest had been frequently burned by prescription that had the goal to maximize understorey development. Prescription burning coupled with low pine stocking (relatively low stand density of pine) resulted in the openness, development of a prominent herbaceous layer, and general sparcity of hardwood species in this forest vegetation. These terms and their application to forest and range management practice were defined and discussed in the caption immediately below.

Loblolly pine in this stand were from natural regeneration (= natural reproduction) which was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as "the establishment of a plant or a plant age class from natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering". Natural seeding is the mode of sexual reproduction for loblolly pine. Trees in this stand ranged in age from approximately 35 to 50 years. Some adult trees were mature for market purposes, but most pines were regarded as too young to harvest for optimum yield of sawtimber.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

114. "What do ya mean there's no grass in the Pineywoods?"- A common perception among folks not familar with Pineywoods is an image of thick stands of loblolly pine with forest floors of nothing but pine straw. While there certainly are forests just like that, especially pulpwood stands (some examples were included in this chapter), this is not the only kind of loblolly pine-dominated forest community among Pineywoods cover types. The numerous "samples" of the example forest featured here introduced students to the form of loblolly pine-hardwood forest (forest cover variant or subtype of SAF 82) with pine stand density sufficiently low enough that herbaceous plants thrived and comprised lower layer(s) of the forest. Frequent prescribed burning had been a major part of management of this forest stand. This herbaceous vegetation (along with accompanying young hardwoods) that resulted from these management practices was ideal range for cattle and part of critical habitat for eastern wild turkey.

Stand density as applied in forestry practice is both a measurement tool and applied concept that is used to explain features of forest. Stand density can mean "a quantitative measure of stocking expressed either absolutely in terms of number of trees, basal area, or volume per unit area or relative to some standard conditions" or as "a measure of the degree of crowding of trees within stocked areas commonly expressed by various growing space ratios" (Helms, 1998). In the stand shown here and in several subsequent photographs loblolly pines had relatively low stand density so that the forest canopy of mature (or nearly mature) pines was open enough to permit adequate light for development of lower layers of forest vegetation. The main beneficiary of such stocking and stand density was pinehill bluestem, the herbaceous dominant. Longleaf woodoats, the distant herbaceous associate, and some composite forbs shared this layer with pine bluestem. There were also some hardwood (angiosperm) shrubs plus some seedlings and saplings of tree species, but in stand shown here other species "played second fiddle" to loblolly pine and pine bluestem.The vegetational outcome of this forest management was forest range, natural vegetation at odds with the sterotypic image that many people perceive of Pineywoods forests (including some who live in the Pineywoods).

Range vegetation presented in these two photographs was in the same stand introduced in the immediately preceding two slides. Loblolly pine had been established by natural regeneration and most trees were mostly in the same age class being approximately 35 to 50 years old. There was limited recruitment (reproduction resulting in addition of a new age class) of loblolly pine, but it appeared adequate for maintenance of current stand density. (Regeneration was presented separately in a photograph below.)

These two photographs presented a "nested" view of range vegetation by showing a general view of the range plant community in the first slide and a "zoomed-in" shot of the lower, predominately herbaceous, layer in the second slide.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

115. Not all grass at that- Another 'nested" set of slides which, like the pair of photographs immediately above, took viewers from a more panning to a zoomed view of understorey vegetation in a second-growth loblolly pine stand subjected to frequent prescribed burning. Density of pine in this stand was low enough that a closed canopy forest could not develop and exclude light from lower levels of forest vegetation. Instead a well-developed herbaceous layer dominated by pinehill bluestem persisted so that this was permanent forest range (in contrast to transitory forest range characteristic of commercial pine plantations).

Hardwood species--mostly sweetgum and black hickory--comprised a lower woody layer in this open-canopy forest. Shrubs (American beautyberry and sumac were the major ones) were very limited in this stand, for whatever reasons. Forbs were also extremely sparse and mostly limited to composites like sharp gayfeather and tall goldenrod. Longleaf woodoats, one of the more widespread and (often, dominant) native grasses in the Pineywoods, had been "overwhelmed" by pine bluestem.

The second of these two slides presented a, "up-closer" view of pine bluestem and early sapling stage of the two major hardwoods. It also featured the blackened bark on the lower trunk of a loblolly pine as physical evidence of frequent prescribed fire in this stand.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

116. Regeneration of loblolly pine can be compatable with frequent prescribed fire- Seedlings of loblolly pine amid pine bluestem and American beautyberry in the lower layer of a second-growth forest in which frequent prescribed fire was a major management practice. Age of adult pines ranged from roughly 35 to 50+ years. This loblolly pine forest consisted mostly of adult age classes with a major component comprised of pines approaching maturity with locally abundant reruitment in the seedling age class. There were comparatively few trees in the middle age/size classes. For instance, there were almost no saplings or small-pole size pines. For management purposes this forest was an even-aged stand with primarily adult trees and enough sexual reproduction at seedling stage to have something of this age class present in the forest vegetation. Even-aged management (even-aged methods of regeneration) via clearcutting is the industry standard for loblolly pine. This regeneration method is especially common throughout the Pineywoods.

Successful seedling establishment in this stand would be possible if prescribed burning was polstponed until existing seedlings reached sizes that could withstand a fire intensity reached with fuel that was made up mostly of pinehill bluestem residue remaining after cattle grazing.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

117. Looking sharp under pines- Plant of sharp gayfeather or sharp blazingstar (Liatris acidota) in the understorey of the second-growth loblolly pine stand treated with frequent prescribed fire. This was one of the few forbs in this cattle-grazed, frequently burnt, forest of naturally regenerated loblolly pine (35 to 50+ year- old pines).

Nacogdoches County, Texas. October

.

118. "Paired plots" (so to speak)- Physiogonomy, structure, and species composition of two adjacent stands of loblolly pine forest range managed under two different fire regimes. The stand in the first photograph was on the same stand that was shown and described in the six photograph-caption units immediately above the example of sharp gayfeather. Exact fire frequency (years between two fires) was not known, but the fire regime was such as to have major impact on species composition of this forest range. The most conspicuous effects of frequent prescribed burning aside from prevention of most pine regeneration was limitation of hardwod cover and commensurate herbage yield of pinehill bluestem.

The second of these two photographs was of a conterminous loblolly pine stand which had been fired with substantially less frequency than the forest range shown in the first of these photographs (and several preceding ones). The less frequently burnt loblolly pine range presented in the second photograph (and in the next two pairs of photographs immediately below) had considerably greater cover of hardwood tree speceis, black hickory and sweetgum making up almost all of this, and commensurably less herbage of pinehill bluestem. Differences in intensity of fires, if any, on these two adjacent forest ranges was unknown. It was possible that fire intensities were different, but it would be speculation to hazard a view that intensity was greater on the less frequently fired loblolly pine range due to fuel buildup or, conversely, that intensity was less where less frequently burned due to less of the readily flammable fuel from pinehill bluestem and more of the less-flammable hardwood biomass.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

119. Hardwoods instead of grass- Forest range on second-growth stand of adult loblolly pine with layer(s) of hardwoods developing in absence of frequent surface fire. Sweetgum and black hickory had come in on a loblolly pine range burnt at widely spaced intervals. The range of this forest stand was adjacent to a comparable range that received frequent prescribed fire and that consequently had very little hardwood cover and much higher yield (standing crop) of pinehill bluestem. The latter loblolly pine forest range was shown and described above.

In these two and the following (the next) two slides, the range of a loblolly pine stand subjected to less frequent prescribed burning was presented. Replacement of pinehill bluestem and longleaf woodoats (dominant and associate herbaceous speceis, respectively) by the two hardwood tree species provided students with a dramatic difference in development, structure, and species composition of lower forest strata in natural loblolly pine forests of the pine-hardwood-grass cover type (SAF 82) in the Texas Pineywoods.

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

120. Less grass and more sprouts- "Nested" set of "photoquadrants" showing general or summary view (first slide) and a shorter focal point sample (second slide) of loblolly pine forest range under treatment with infrequent surface fire. Less frequent use of prescribed burning (longer nonburn periods) on a second-growth loblolly pine range resulted in rapid growth and greatly increased cover and density of hardwoods (mostly sweetgum and black hickory) in lower layers of forest vegetation as compared to an adjacent loblolly pine forest range that was burned by prescription at greater return rates (higher frequency of prescribed fire). Both of the contiguous loblolly pine stands had the same major plant species in lower layers of the forest range community: pinehill bluestem, sweetgum, and black hickory. The general or overall difference between the two forest ranges was greater density and cover (absolute and relative) of the hardwoods and a corresponding reduction in cover and herbage yield (herbaceous standing crop) of pinehill bluestem on the less frequently fired range. Density of adult pine trees was the same.

In addition to and aside from this lesson, a second major concept for students studying these examples dealt with wildlife habitat, improved forest range for eastern wild turkey in this example. A patchwork of different forest communities had developed in various loblolly pine stands that were burnt at different time intervals (that is, periods between successive fires; or, in language of Fire Science, different fire frequencies). This mosaic of forest patches of different plant communities created superior habitat for eastern wild turkey, the game crop species chosen for this loblolly pine forest.

In a theorical construct, this could be viewed in context of Landscape Ecology where the various stands of loblolly pine were patches and even corridors within the matrix of the overall loblolly pine-hardwood-grass forest cover type. Viewed from perspective of forest management (heavy emphasis placed on economic as well as ecological considerations) and applied practice these various stands or, same thing from a grazing/browsing orientation, different tracts of forest range were components of the whole commercial forest. On this forest property, raising of calves as a traditional market commodity and production of wild turkeys as a huntable resource for revenue through egress fees (payment for the privilege of entering private property to pursue wildlife) were forest products the same as growing sawtimber to be sold as stumpage. Stumpage is standing timber to a buyer or cutter and thus is the value of uncut timber expressed per unit area of land such as by the acre (Helms, 1998).

Important technical distinction: the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) distinguised between industrial and nonindustrial forests. Industrial forests were described as being forest lands owned by firms that operated primary wood-using plants and that were therefore managed primarily for wood products. Nonindustrial forests on the other hand were characterized as forest lands owned by individuals or companies other than forest industry and on which forest management migh include goals and products other than timber production. Commercial forestry was defined as "the practice of forestry with the object of producing timber and other forest produce as a business enterprise or for sale to a business enterprise" (Helms, 1998). Production of livestock and wildlife as forest enterprises (regardless of how revenue is obtained) is "part and parcel" of commercial forest management the same as production of wood commodities. Such commercial forests are not generally regarded as industrial forests, but they can be (usually are) operated as businesses or commercial endeavors. This would not preclude commercial operation of forests for philotrophy, but such forests would still be managed for profit (or at least to minimize economic loss).

Winston 8 Ranch, Nacogdoches County, Texas. October; autumnal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

Throughout much of the Old South--Cotton Belt, the original Cotton Kingdom, land of the Confederate States of America--much, probably most, of the pristine forests of the eastern decicuous formation, including the Pineywoods Region (the pine-hardwood forest types), were converted to cropland. This conversion of forest (also woodland and savannah) to field crops was mostly for row crops, primarily either tobacco and, later, cotton or cotton straightaway. For any number of reasons--chemical, biological, and economic-- upland cotton became an unprofitable crop for much of the agricultural region known as the Cotton Belt. This was especially the case of some of the more marginal and even submarginal lands such as those that were highly erodible, made up of less fertile soils, low-lying fields subject to flooding, distant from markets, etc. Even cotton production on some of the better land in parts of the Cotton Belt became untenable due to diseases and insect pests like the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). Consequently, many cotton producers turned to various alternative crops including beef cattle and wood production. These latter two crops were (are) often combined in 1) operations utilizing ranges of Pineywoods forests on which pulp wood and/or timber were grown or 2) those combining introduced (agronomic) forages with wood crops.

The latter form of stock-growing, largely cattle-raising, by "forage farming" coupled (integrated) with tree crops is a combination of Agronomy and Forestry known as Agroforestry. The Society of American Foresters defined Agroforestry as " a land-use system that involves deliberate retention, introduction, or mixture of trees or other woody perennials in crop and animal production systems to take advantage of economic or ecological interactions among the components" (Helms, 1998). Generally tree, forage, and animal crops (eg. beef cattle) under Agroforestry require more intensive management and greater inputs of labor and capital than stock-raising on forest ranges (Range Management). Throughout much of the South this intensive production system requires the growing of conifers that are in effect domesticated, most commonly loblolly pine or slash pine (Pinus elliottii), in plantations. Wood production--whether for pulp, posts, poles, logs, etc.--from pine plantations is the standard industrial forestry model in southeastern North America. .When the grazing crop on intensively managed pine plantations is tame pasture of introduced (= domestic or agronomic) forage species, beef cattle production also means more intensive management of livestock and grazing land (eg. higher stocking rates). Animal agriculture must of necessity complement and in other ways be compatable with wood production under such production systems..

The form of agroforestry that has integrated combinations of wood, forage (as pasture and/or mechanically harvested forage), and animal (usually meat animal such as beef cattle) management and production is generally known as agrosilvopastoralism, "a form of agroforestry consisting of tree (woody perennial), crop, and pasture and livestock components". When there is not a crop component present the form of agroforestry is silvopastoralism or silvipastoralism (= silvopastoral system), "a form of agroforestry system consisting of the trees (woody perennials) and pasture and animal components" (Helms, 1998).

Presented in this section was an example of an agrosilvopastoral system (agrosilvipastoralism) in the Texas Pineywoods that consisted of loblolly pine and combination loblolly and longleaf pine plantations having an herbaceous layer (grazable understorey) comprised almost exclusively of bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum). Bahiagrass is perennial panicoid grass native to South America that was introduced to North America to be used as a tame (= domesticated or agronomic) pasture species. Bahiagrass subsequently naturalized to become a permanent (at least in human time scale) species in the Pineywoods flora and, of more practical importance, a major or even dominant component of Pineywoods forest vegetation. In fact, bahiagrass became an important (and a particularily noxious) weed over much of the region in which it naturalized. This latter phenomenon is attributable to the fact that bahiagrass can survive and displace other (and more productive) agronomic species such as the more recently released cultivars of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactyledon) as well as native plant species.

A practical "if-you-can't-lick-them-join them" management practice is to graze (or harvest as hay) naturalized bahiagrass as if it were a "super-tough" range grass. Production of animal commodities from swards of naturalized bahiagrass by range (or quasi-range) management techniques (eg. manipulation or husbandry of the forage crop being more or less limited to grazing and/or haying management and with little or no reliance on fertilization, liming, seeding, etc.) still qualifies as a form of silvopastoralism, though it is one more of extensive rather than intensive inputs. Likewise (though conversely), from the perspecitve of the tree (wood) crop, loblolly pines grown under the prevailing industrial forest system of the Pineywoods are intensively managed because they are--though a native species--artificial selections (varietal stock= clonal material) planted (in rows nonetheless as "pines in lines") and thinned at specific intervals. Longleaf pine has not been the Pinus species of choice for industrial forestry in the Pineywoods (even though it was the mainstay of the early forest industry in Texas and western Louisiana). As such, longleaf pine has not been subjected to the extreme pressure of artificial selection as has loblolly pine. Currently there are concerted efforts to reestablish longleaf pine as a major species for commercial wood production in the Pineywoods Region.

The loblolly and longleaf pine-bahiagrass-beef cattle agrosilvopastoral system described in this section was an example of agricultural production that was a practical, economical, and sustainable form of industrial forestry complete with multiple use goods and services. This was an experimental plantation forest-hay field described by Oswald et al. (2008). This unique form of forest-hay land-naturalized range was a commonsense approach that had particuilar application on land that had been deforested, converted to farmland, and partially reforested as one type of tree farm (ie. a form of tree farming with a naturalized range component used for production of hay and animal commodities).

121. Basic unit- Different views of one land unit of an agrosilvopastoral system consisting of naturalized bahiagrass pasture containing blocks of loblolly pine (and, later, both loblolly and longleaf pine) plantations in the central Pineywoods of east Texas. Plantations of different ages planted to containerized varietal selections of loblolly pine and more recent plantings of loblolly and longleaf pine were being grown adjacent to each other within a hay field consisting almost exclusively of the introduced (and nows naturalized) South American panicoid grass, bahiagrass. The spatial arrangement or pattern of bahiagrass hay field and pine plantations consisted of larger proportions of tree-free field and smaller areas in long, narrow strips of closely planted pines with each such strip comprised of the same age class of tree of either loblolly pine or loblolly and longleaf pine in combination. In this spatial arrangement there were different rotations of pines (one or two species) superimposed in a crop rotation sequence on the naturalized bahiagrass. In addition, there were two different row widths or spacings (distances between two rows of pines) of four (4) yards and ten (10) yards in the different strip plantations. Ages of pines ranged from five down to two years with younger trees being the result of replacement plantings necessitated by loss of planted trees from rooting by feral swine. In this study, bahiagrass and pines were fertilized with 20-8-15 at the rate of 375 pounds per acre (Oswald et at. 2008).

The agrosilvicultural unit featured in this section was used for hay production in conjuction with pine plantation forestry. This particular bahiagrass hay field-pine plantation was an experimental unit for study of hay production, pine establishment, and influence of young loblolly and longleaf pines on grass hay yields. Hay had been harvested periodically and at time of these photographs was in the recovery phase of the harvest cycle in early autumn. Bahiagrass was in anthesis to grain milk-stage. Other Paspalum and Panicum species were present though as incidental species in trace proportions and therefore were of little consequence from management and production perspectives. Pinehill and broomsedge bluestems were locally abundant along edges of the bahiagrass hay field next to pine plantations (see below), but they were not identified in the interior of the naturalized grassland. At this season and in the dense bahiagrass sward forbs were minor to largely absent except for local stands of hogwort or wooly croton (Croton capitatus); the rank-growing composite, yankeeweed; and naturalized rattlebox or bigbag sesbania (Sesbania punicea). (Yankeeweed growing on pine plantations was covered above.) These weedy forbs were far more abundant along rows of young pines and at outer edges of plantations of older pines. It seemed that this was due to mowing at some distance from trees, presumedly to avoid cutting them (or, more likely, damaging mowing machines).

The land of this silvopastoral system had been in virgin Pineywoods forest (most likely loblolly pine--hardwood; SAF 82) at time of settlement by white man. Exact history of land use was unknown and perhaps included row crop farming, especially upland cotton. Pasture plantings had been part of the history of agricultural use of this land, but it seemed most probable that much if not most of the bahiagrass currently growing on these pastures and fields was naturalized in the same matter as across much of this region. (The day before taking these slides the author photographed a gilgai form of Blackland Prairie that, irrespective of its virgin sod, had been invaded by bahiagrass twhich, in combination with improper haying management, had displaced (replaced) to considerable degree the native tallgrass species.

Pasture management in the silvopastoral component system was limited primarily to proper grazing management of the bahiagrass as naturalized range and not as intensively managed permanent pasture (ie. in this system the introduced and now self-sustainig bahiagrass was not managed as an agronomic species). In the classification scheme of Vallentine (1990, 2001) bahiagrass pasture and hay field was seeded range (introduced species), a category of long-term grazing land or range.

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

122. "Wide line" plantings- Two rows of clonal-stock loblolly pine planted at widths of 10 yards on naturalized and extensive managed bahiagrass pasture currently used for hay production in the Texas Pineywoods. Pinehill and broomsedge bluestems were the two secondmost abundant grasses. They were much more plentiful next to planted pines. Other species Paspalum and Panicum present were incidental and of no consequence management-wise. Forbs were mostly the weedy species hogwort or wooly croton, yankeeweed, and rattlebox or bigbag sesbania. These were more abundnat along rows of pines avoided by hay mowers.

Large trees in the distanct background were nearly mature (over 40 years of age) loblolly pine in another block of plantations. Bahiagrass had been recently mowed for hay and was in the regrowth or recovery phase.

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

123. Newest crop and a new addition- Rows of wide-space, alternate-planted loblolly pine and longleaf pine ("every other one" planting) as part of a pine plantation block (strips of planted pines of differenrt age classes arranged in block pattern) on a naturalized bahiagrass pasture in Texas Pineywoods. This unit was periodically mowed for hay and was in the grass recovery (= regrowth) phase.

Second slide showed a longleaf pine (left) and a loblolly pine (right) in the side-by-side, every other one planting arrangement used in rows of young trees. This was an example of the on-going--though decades belated-effort to restore longleaf pine to its "rightful role" as a native pine used in commercial (indistrial) forestry.

These were three-year old- trees (in contrast to larger five-year-old trees shown in closer-spaced rows) that had been planted to replace those that had been covered by soil from rooting by free-ranging feral hogs (Oswald et al., 2008). There were numerous plants of hogwort or wooly croton growing among these younger pines. There were also occasional small seedlings of Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum), but according to local foresters the seedlings of this invasive, alien tree cannot compete with the two native pines.

Large oak in bckground was a southern red oak, a remnant of when the natural plant community on this land was a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. (SAF 82).

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

124. End of rows and down them- End of a plantation of loblolly pine (five-year-old trees) at a row spacing of four yards and the adjoining edge of a tree-free hay field made up almost exclusively of naturalized bahiagrass. At this stage and age-class of loblolly pine there was such a dense tree canopy that almost all of the former herbaceous layer had died out due to insufficient quantites of light. In effect at this tree spacing (row width) two monocultures had formed so both tree-free grassland and pine plantations were required for wood and forage production on the same management unit of an agroforestry system (ie. if the same unit of land was going to be used to produce both wood and forage crops).

Taller shoots of grasses at this edge of naturalized grassland and pine plantation weere both pinehill and roomsedge bluestems. These two species were not found in the hay field dominated by bahiagrass. There were undoubtedly a few plants of these species (along with some Panicum and other Paspalum species besides bahiagrass), but taller-growing, cespitose grasses like pinehill bluestem and even the invader and ruderal species broomsedge could not compete with the aggressive, lower-growing, stoloniferous (sod-forming) bahiagrass under the current regime of frequent, low mowing. Such is the selective grazing feature of the mechanical mowing machine. (The day before these photographs were taken the author photographed invasion and replacement of native tallgrass species by bahiagrass on a virgin-sod Blackland Prairie hay meadow (see Tallgrass Prairie, Interion under Grasslands herein.)

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

125. Under the pines where the sun sometimes shines- In the sporadically sunlite interior of a plantation of five-year-old loblolly pines planted in row specings of four yards and at within row spacings of about 2.3 yards ((Oswald et al., 2008) naturalized bahiagrass was making its "last stand". The mulching affect of "pine straw" (shed needles) was also a factor that limited the growth of this aggresive, heavy grazing-adapted panicoid grass introduced from South America. There were a few plants of pinehill and broomsedge bluestems also present, but even these Pineywoods natives were no match for shade cast by native pines planted at such "close quarters".

The next photograph revealed at even closer distance the loss of the herbaceous understorey from a typical loblolly pine plantation of close row spacings within five years of tree planting. Continued presence of a forage crop on the same unit of land planted to pine plantations would require some area of tree-free grassland if both wood and forage crops were to be grown.

Pangola County, Texas. October. Highly modified form of the following forest range vegetation classification units. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

126. Deep in the pines and out of bahiagrass- In the innermost part of a plantation of five-year-old loblolly pines bahiagrass had been effectively "shaded out" by dense tree canopy. Inescapable conclusion was that within five years of planting fast-growing loblolly pines the grass crop (whether used as pasture or hay) was gone inside pine plantations of closely spaced rows (four yards between rows).

Bahiagrass is a transitory forage crop within pine plantations. This means that if a unit of land is to produce both forage and wood crops on a permanent basis there must be pine-free areas of naturalized bahiagrass-dominated grassland. If some units of land within an agrosilvopastoral or silvopastoral system are planted completely to pine plantations there will have to be other units of land within the agroforestry system that have tree-free grassland; that is, if a particular agroforestry system is to be other than a transitory phase of industrial plantation forestry. Otherwise it is just the industrial standard of wood production by the intensively managed-single commodity pine plantation model (a commercial forest system with minor emphasis on multiple uses).

127. Sward and specimen- Detail of sward of naturalized pasture dominated by bahiagrass in central Texas Pineywoods (first photograph) and close-up view of bahiagrass in this sward (second photograph). These "photoquadrants" were on the tree-free portion of the agrosilvopastoral hay field unit featured above. There were trace amounts of other Paspalum and Panicum species in this sward, but these grasses were of little--if any--practical consequence on this naturalized grassland. Also, there were undoubtedly isolated plants of pinehill and broomsedge bluestems in this sward that were kept in stunted size and dwarfish habit by repeated close mowing. This was evidenced by presence of these two Andropogon species along margins of pine rows and at edges where pine plantations and tree-free hay field abutted. (Hay mowers avoided cutting grass too close to pine trees; knowing machine operators as this author does, this was deemed most likely to avoid damage to mowing machines more than out of concern for planted trees).

Pangola County, Texas. October; phenology of bahiagrass was anthesis to milk-stage of grain.

128. Forest to field to city back to forest- This is new forest vegetation on land with an old story. In east Texas within the Pineywoods Region a virgin loblolly pine-oak-hickory forest was cleared so that the land could be used as a small patch for raising field crops, mostly upland cotton (Gossypium hirstum) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). After years of soil erosion and mining of the soil by farming without fertilization, crop rotation, green manure crops, and so on the land was abandoned (retired from farming). The land became what ecologists refer to as an old field (a former farm field; abandoned cropland). The farm field had been "let go" when it finally became "farmed out" (= soil severely depleted of critical nutrients). The land lay fallow because it was no longer profitable for production of field crops. The old field began to "go back" toward a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. Then urban sprawl encroached on this former farmland that had subsequently become just another old field of "weeds and brush". For a period of time the land was "developed" (converted) into commercial property. Eventually even the small business on this tract of real estate folded and moved off leaving the land to once again progress toward, to eventually revert back to, some semblance of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest. One stage of revegetation (of forest redevelopment or reforestation) on this parcel of forest land was shown in these two photographs. A slightly more advanced state of revegetation was presented in the two photographs immediately below. Both sets of slides portrayed vegetation "going back" toward some form of Pineywoods forest.

Old fields are also known more colloquially as "go-back land" because the vegetation on such land redevelops by the processes of secondary plant succession to "go back" toward the original vegetation that existed before extreme human-caused disturbance. That is the original (virgin or pristine) plant community, the primeval forest, revegetates the land to the extent that it can given eroded and depleted soil, absence of some sources of seed or other plant propagules, introduction of alien plant species, disturbance by exotic animals, etc. The dynamics of natural vetetation restoration (reforestation in this instance) is by orderly, sometimes relatively predictable, patterns in which one plant community gradually replaces another plant community until the end of this sequence is reached. The fiinal, the end-of-sequence, terminal plant community is known as the climax vegetation (or simply the climax).The land on which this pattern slowly--almost inexorably--takes place by secondary plant succession is a sere. The different, distinctive plant communities that develop on the sere as stepwise or sequential plant communities (assemblages of plant species following in successive order) are seral stages. Two such seral stages were visible in this old field, that is on this successionally early, second-growth (for at least the second time in human history) loblolly pine-hardwood forest.

The area of old field (abandoned city lot would be more specific in regards to recent human usage) in the foreground had suffered greater soil loss through accelerated erosion than the land in the background. The area in the foreground had received more intense human disturbance (building construction, foot and vehicular traffic, heavier and more frequent mowing, and greater surface runoff of water due to removal of plant cover). Most of the plant cover on the foremost portion of the abandoned field-city lot consisted of annual herbaceous species of which old-field threeawn (one of the textbook colonizing species in humid eastern North America) was the dominant. The distant "second place" species on the most disturbed portion of this go-back land was the perennial bunchgrass, broomsedge bluestem (another classic invader of eastern old fields). Blackberry (Rubus sp.) and goldenrod (Solidago sp.) were starting to invade this heavily impacted area.Vaseygrass and Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) were two naturalized, exotic species present. There were more seedlings of tallow tree on the portion that was most extremely impacted by man. An example of this exotic brush species was visible in the lower right corner. Chinese tallow tree readily comes in on disturbed areas such as clearcuts (see above), but most on-the-ground observations have suggested that this aggressive alien species, though horribly noxious, cannot compete with fast-growing native seral tree species like sweetgum.

Sweetgum and loblolly pine were the only tree species on this devastated land. Sweetgum is typically the dominant early seral or, frequently, pioneer tree species on old fields and clearcuts. Loblolly pine appears on such denuded land a few years after sweetgum has established. Loblolly pine persists as a major species in late seral to climax forest so its presence in this seral plant community suggested a more advanced stage of forest succession than was actually the case. Pines on this go-back land were young trees (less than a decade old). These same trees would readily survive for a couple of centuries if not killed by natural disaster or human manipulation. Age of long-lived plants on a sere is one variable in determining successional stage in much the same way as is species composition and structure of vegetation. Given that such a high proportion of plant cover on the most degraded part of the old field was comprised of annual herbaceous species, including pioneer species such as old-field threeawn, it was obvious that the plant community in the foreground was an early seral and, perhaps, even the pioneer stage on this sere.

The part of this go-back land shown in the background (treated in the next pair of photographs) had been less disturbed by human activity and had lost less soil than that in the foreground. The back portion of this abandoned field-city lot was also closer to a small tract of land supporting adult sweetgum and loblolly pine that served as seed sources for invasion of the old field by these tree species. Both sweetgum and loblolly pine were advancing (albeit it more slowly) into the more severely disturbed land (foreground) that was also more distant from seed sources. Seedlings and small saplings of both tree species on this most degraded area were visible in these two photographs.

Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

129. Reclaiming its own- Portion of an old field on which loblolly pine and sweetgum had invaded and were advancing redevelopment of a Pineywoods forest. This was land on which a loblolly pine-hardwood forest had been cleared, used for a succession of land uses, and then abandoned only to undergo secondary plant succession (for at least a second time since occupation of the land by European man). The story thus far was that a primeval Pineywoods forest was cleared and converted to farmland. It was "cropped out" by mismanagement and abandoned. The land become an old field and started "going back" to a form of forest. Then land jobbers, those scourges of the modern age, cleared the young second-growth loblolly pine forest and "developed" the real estate as business property. Business(s) on this commercial property went bust or elsewhere(at least they went) leaving the land abandoned from modern human use once again. And once again, plants and plant communities retuned on the land. Vegetation began to redevelop and, at time of these photographs, was on its way of going back to Pineywoods forest.

The land on this tract of primival forest-to cotton patch-to city lot-back to an early stage of loblolly pine-hardwood forest consisted of an area that had been located behind a highway frontage portion. This latter portion had served as a location for urban businesses which--like the farmers that preceded them-- ultimately abandoned the land. The less intensively used (and abused) portion of abandoned land was not only somewhat less degraded (less soil loss) it was also closer to a stand of adult trees which served as seed sources for loblolly pine and sweetgum, both of which are typically early arrivals on Pineywoods seres undergoing secondary plant succession. Successful occupation of the disturbed land by these two native tree species (the process of invasion in the Clementsian model of plant succession) was evident. Invasion was more advanced than on the land that had been more seriously degraded (described in the immediately preceding caption). Seedlings were continuing to invade both areas of this old field.

The main herbaceous species on this area of less-degraded go-back land were old-field threeawn and broomsedge bluestem with there appearing to be somewhat greater cover of the perennial broomsedge on this successionally more advanced area. Individual plants of the cespitose broomsedge were larger (ie. had more tillers) on this less-disturbed land. This was consistent with them being older than plants on the more recently abandoned portion of this old field-city lot. Blackberry and goldenrod were the other major native species. Vaseygrass and Chinese tallow tree were exotic species that had established on local habitats. Vaseygrass is an introduced, perennial, forage grass that was of obvious benefit on this land and for its recovering forest. Vaseygrass, like broomsedge bluestem or even annual threeawn , was especially valuable for soil cover and protection against accelerated erosion. All grass species were adding valuable organic matter to the impoverished soil. Chinese tallow tree is a dreaded noxious species, but one that apparently cannot successfully compete with native trees on most forest sites.

Nacogodoches County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community, but under plantation forestry this is SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion 35a (Griffith et al., 2004).

130. Exterior view of cutover land in Texas Pineywoods- Physiogonomy, structure, and species composition at overall-view distance of cutover loblolly pine-hardwood (white oak dominant) bottomland forest. This successional (recovering) forest was the vegetational zone just above (elevation) and beyond or "out from" (linear plane distance) and contiguous with a "pin oak flat" of willow oak (Quercus phellos)-sweetgum-river birch (Betula nigra)-American hornbeam, or blue beech (Carpinus caroliniana) floodplain forest type (SAF 88) and a slightly higher second-growth forest of swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak type (SAF 91) on the first terrace of Neches River. The "pin oak flat" forest and cherrybark oak-dominated stand were treated separately under the section, Swamps and Related Wetland Forests, in the Texas Pineywoods chapter. Here the emphasis was on natural forest recovery (secondary plant succession) of the loblolly pine-hardwood type (SAF 82 forest cover type).

Although this loblolly pine-white oak forest was conterminous with a wetland forest it was on porous (highly sandy) soil high enough above the usual floodplain that loblolly pine could thrive as the dominant and white oak, a mesic species doing best under better-drained edaphic habitats, was the distant-second dominant down to associate species on some local habitats. Water oak was second most common abundant (second greatest relative crown cover) hardwood tree species. Willow oak and considerably less overcup oak (Q. lyrata) were also present as was the ever-present sweetgum, the standard "number one" pioneer hardwood. Likewise river birch and American hornbeam were present on this forest community adjacent to the "pin oak flats". Also present, however (and indicative of better-drained soils), was eastern baccharis or sea-myrtle, a widespread early seral shrub species on loblolly pine plantations as demonstrated above.

In addition to the replacement of wetland oaks and sweetgum with loblolly pine and white oak, another glaring distinction (the second-most obvious) between this forest range vegetation and that of the adjoining willow oak-laurel oak-sweetgum floodplain forest ("pin oak flats") and, even more so, the cherrybark oak stand was presence of a well-developed herbaceous layer (including longleaf woodoats, one of the defining and dominant grasses of the Texas Pineywoods. Grasslike plants also made up a major component of the herbaceous stratum. Leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) was the most abundant of these.

The purpose of this section was to illustrate natural re-development of foret vegetation on cutover land of the loblolly pine type in the Texas Pineywoods rather than present climax or advanced seral stages of the loblolly pine-hardwood type which was presented elsewhere in this publication. The classic Clementsian model of secondary plant succession, which was restated in the section immediately above dealing with loblolly pine forest on old fields, has long-proved to be an adequate if not an extraordinary model of vegetation development in the Piedmont physiographic province of North America. The cutover Pineywoods forest shown in this short portion had advanced along its sere to the point of having the species composition--though clearly not the structure and complete cunctioning--of the ultimate forest cover type which this rangeman interpreted as the climax forest. That forest community was described as the potential natural vegetation by Kuchler (19

Although this loblolly pine-mixed oak community had developed on the upper reaches of a river floodplain it was not strictly speaking a bottomland forest cover type (Eyre, 1980, p. 7). This loblolly pine-white oak forest vegetation had similarities to the shortleaf pine-oak type, especially shortleaf pine-white oak forest which is a widespread upland forest community common on uplands throughout Blackland Belt of northeast Texas and the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri.

There were several age classes of all tree species. This was especially conspicuous with loblolly pine and white oak. Note for example pine seedlings in the foreground of the second of these two slides. Variation in diameter of boles of white oak was shown in the second photograph of the two-slide set immediately below.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

131. Reclaiming its rightful place- Loblolly pine along with white oak (the dominant Quercus species) water oak, and willow oak were naturally reforesting (secondary plant succession) cutover land, an upper elevation zone of bottomland loblolly pine-hardwood forest (SAF 82) just outward from (above) the Neches River in Texas Pineywoods. The part of this cutover forest land shown here was just above (slightly higher in elevation than) a cherrybark oak-dominated stand representing the swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak cover type (SAF 91) described in the section entitled, Swamps and Related Wetland Forests.

This example of forest vegetation was on the greater floodplain of the Neches River on a higher elevational area that was flooded infrequently. Loblolly pine was the more or greater dominant followed by white oak as a secondary dominant and with water oak and willow oak as associate species. Cherrybark oak was present (mostly an incidental indicator species). Sweetgum was more abundant than this large red oak species, but less common than white oak and the so-called "pin oaks" River birch was locally common on lower microsites. The most frequently encountered shrub was eastern baccharis or sea-myrtle which was also a major shrub on young loblolly pine plantations (see above).

There was a well-developed herbaceous layer dominated by longleaf woodoats with leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) being a local dominant (on microhabitats of temporarily ponded water and the overall associate herbaceous species. Forbs were not encountered during this visit in early autumn.

The largest trees on this second-growth, recovering forest were loblolly pines (DBH of generally 10 up to a maximum of 14 inches). White oaks were generally 8 to 10 inches DBH). An example of this larger size of white oak was shown in right midground of the first slide. There were numerous age classes of all tree species including seedlings of loblolly pine (foregroundof second slide in the preceding two-slide set) as well as small pine saplings (midground of first of the two slides presented here). The range in diameter of boles of white oak were shown in the second photograph of this pair of pictures.

Several plants of longleaf woodoats were featured in immediate foreground of this second slide (along with a nearly rotted-away stump of white oak from the last harvested wood crop. Smaller boles in background of this second photograph were sweetgum.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

132. Close to trees- Longleaf woodoats, the characteristic dominant grass throughout much of the Pineywoods, thrived under shade of various trunk sizes of water oak on a young, second-growth loblolly pine-oak forest on highert reaches of the Neches River floodplain. In the first of these two slides boles of water oak appeared to be sprouts (water shoots) from the same stump. Difference in size was apparently the result of differences in apical or shoot dominance and/or perhaps age and slightly different light (shade) conditions at microscale.

The second slide presented an individual plant of longleaf woodoats (and with some neighbors behind). Leaf cover, especially of distinctive water oak, formed a litter layer on the soil surface. Such a layer is part of the vegetation of this forest range.

Houston County, Texas. October. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) is the natural forest community.Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1), Pine Series (123.12) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains-Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).

133. Sexual shoots of longleaf woodoats- Several infloresences (first slide) and detailed view (second slide) of longleaf woodoats growing beneath water oak on cutover land of a loblolly pine-oak forest range on upper reaches of Neches River. Longleaf woodoats was the overall dominant herbaceous species on this range, as on vast acreages throughout the Texas Pineywoods. Hydric microsites of the understorey were dominated by leathery rush (next sequence of slides).

Houston County, Texas. October.

134. Rushed to takeover cutover land- Leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus) dominated local microhabitats of temporarily ponded water on cutover land of loblolly pine-mixed oak forest on upper extents of Neches River floodplain. Overall, longleaf woodoats was the dominant herbaceous species in the understorey and local clearings of this forest range.

Houston County, Texas. October.

135. Leathery rush- Two cespistose plants of a locally dominant grasslike plant on cutover loblolly pine-oak forest on upper reaches of Neches River floodplain (first photograph). Details of shoots on perimeters of these two plants was shown in the second photograph. Plants of leathery rush on this forest range were in late senescent stages of phenology (approaching dormancy). They had sussessfully completed sexual reproduction (next pair of photographs).

Houston County, Texas. October.

136. Inflorescence of leathery rush (Juncus cariaceus)- Details of two panicles of leathery rush at fruit-ripe stage of phenology. Fruit type of Juncus is a loculicidal capsule, "a capsule which dehisces by means of openings into the locules, about midway between the partitions" (Smith, 1977, ps. 229, 300). The charactersitic identifying feature of Juncus cariaceus is location of inflorescences off of one side of (laterally) and below the apex of shoots with prominently round capsules (Diggs et al, 2006, ps. 704, 708-709).

Houston County, Texas. October.