Tallgrass Prairie (Interior)-IA

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The tallgrass prairie includes range vegetation that can be visualized as consisting of two major forms: 1) once-vast grasslands in the continental interior of North America and 2) zones of grasslands and marshes along the shores of North America extending from the Atlantic Coast through the Gulf of Mexico. Climate of the former is continental; that of the latter is maritime. Species composition (including dominants) of plants and animals is similar (sometimes nearly the same) on both of these two basic forms or expressions of tallgrass range. Differences in species in the pre-Columbian ecosystems of these forms was probably not great as there were similar species (= similar ecological niches) or ecological equivalents among range types in them. For example, the dominant climax gallinaceous birds of the interior tallgrass bluestem prairies (eg. Flint Hills and Osage Questas of Kansas and Oklahoma), Gulf of Mexico coastal cordgrass prairies and marshes, and small patches of northern cordgrass prairies along the Atlanic Coast were one subspecies of the grouse known as greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), Attwater prairie chicken (T. cupido attwateri), and heath hen (T. cupido cupido), respectively. Of course the heath hen is extinct, the Attwater in dire trouble, and the greater is declining, but such similarity in taxa of the major grassland bird of each of these recognized generic grasslands illustrated the ecological relatedness of these major forms of tallgrass grasslands and various range cover types therein. For pedagogic purposes and convenience (ease of viewing examples) the tallgrass prairie sub-formation (or sub-biome) of North Amereican grasslands was divided into two separate chapters designated as interior tallgrass prairie and coastal tallgrass prairie. There are marshes (herbaceous plant communities usually with the soil surface covered by standing water most of the year or growing season) in (or affilitated with) both of these major forms of tallgrass prairie. Marshes have often interpreded as different from grasslands, perhaps even as separate biomes. Natural distinction between prairie (dominant plants are species of grasses hence grassland) and marsh (dominant plants include species of grasslike plants such as sedges, bulrushes or tules, rushes, cattails, etc. as well as grasses). Designations and differences are often unclear or even arbitrary as, for example, distinction between wet prairie and marsh. The same dominant and associate species of plants are sometimes common to adjacent grassland and marsh. This condition is more common in coastal prairies and marshes than in interior prairies and associated wetlands. Generally marshes are more common and prominent plant communities in coastal than in interior grassland vegetation. Such was reflected in names of these two major forms of tallgrass prairie. It could be argued that the term prairie could or should encompass both grassland and marsh thereby uniting these two general units of range vegetation. Perhaps prairie could be interpreted so as to include both grassland and marsh. Such a union is not possible given the traditional designation of vegetational or land resource area 2 in Texas as Coastal Prairies and Marshes. The long-standing convention of this "purple-pedigreed' title was retained in the current publication. Rangemen simply have to learn to live with a certain amount of ambiguity. In the Gulf Prairies and Marshes there are range plant and animal communities that are not strictly speaking dominated by tallgrass species. These include such habitats as seashores and salt flats. Such range vegetation or plant and animal communities are, however, part of the Gulf Prairies and Marshes landscape or greater ecosystem (when seen from pserpective of Landscape Ecology or Ecosystem Ecology). In context of a publication devoted to range types these units of range vegetation were distinctive and different enough from described rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994)-- and obviously essential or integral to development and functioning of recognized range types-- that such vegetation was included herein. The ultimate source for native vegetation of the tallgrass prairie (and true prairie) is North American Prairie (Weaver, 1954). Definitive reference for tallgrass prairie from an ecosystem perspective is that of Kucera (in Coupland, 1992, ps. 227--268).

1. The Virgin Prairie- Tallgrass prairie; bluestem pastures. Physiography and vegetation of the Flint Hills. Tallgrass prairie dominated by "The Four Horsemen of the Prairies": big bluestem (Andropogon geraldii= A. furcatus), little bluestem (A. scoparius = Schizachyrium scoparium), Indiangrass (Sorgastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum).Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

* Note: In the North American biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) all cover types within the tallgrass prairie were encompassed by the generic--and overly broad-- designation of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1, except for the Beardgrass Series of Gulf Coastal Grassland. Even the latter was too general for the less diverse Gulf Coastal Tallgrass Prairie. The title of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series was not repeated again because there are numerous and more specific rangeland cover types within the tallgrass prairie. The better known Kuchler unit, Bluestem Prairie, was shown throughout because it was basis of the Prairie Ecosystem of the long-standing Forest and Range Ecosystem series.

2. Tallgrass prairie transect- "Compressed" along this length (approximately 80 yards) of Flint Hills sod is the complete array of all major tallgrass prairie communities going from wet bottomland to shallow, rocky hilltop. In the immediate left foreground is an eastern gamagrass consociation (a zone of "pure" eastern gamagrass or natural single- species stand) except for two or three patches of canada or nohe third "strip", of two species: 1) big bluestem (far left patch of shorter grass) which is a short-shoot grass that does not elongate its culm until late summer so infloresences have just emerged and 2) a bottomland ecotype of switchgrass (far right midground that has fully emerged its panicle inflorescences that have a reddish cast). Switchgrass is a long-shoot tallgrass that elongates its culm and apical meristem relatively early in the growing season. The fourth zone is Indiangrass which is also a long-shoot tallgrass species of about the same height as the switchgrasss and, being behind it, is not visible from this vantage point. The hillside in the background is a "three-way" dominance mixture of big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama farily evenly distributed but with the three respective species becoming progressively less dominant as they populate the hillside until sideoats grama forms a “pure” single-species stand at the summit except for scattered compassplants which are visible against the skyline. The main associate interspersed in the eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass is the prominent, tall, yellow composite, wholeleaf rosin-weed (Silphium integrifolium). The mid-height graminoid in the bottom of the draw in far right foreground is another Carex species. This zonal distribution of species in the vegetation is due to soil moisture (and soil depth largely as a determinant of soil water). This is the phenomenon that F.E. Clements (1920, p. 26; Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 203) explained by the term chresard ("amount for use") or soil water available for use by plants. Like most of Clements’ terms this one never caught on (perhaps fortunately so). It seems synonymous with the term and concept of field capacity water for mesophytes, but Clements used chresard as one major factor to explain distribution of plants. The zonation of tallgrass prairie species along this chresard gradient is gradation from most mesic (or maybe hydric) to least mesic or most xeric. It is a graphic reminder of this major fact of life on the range: Available (=effective soil water is the most universally limiting factor in range plant survival, growth, and reproduction.  Soil water available for plant use is the single most important factor in determining species distribution, plant community productivity and, ultimately, yield of range animal products (meaning ranch income). "All Hell needs is water." (Attributed to General Phillip H. Sheridan as his comeback  when he was told that all Texas needed was water. This assessment was a response to Sheridan’s initial conclusion: “If I owned Hell and Texas I would live in Hell and rent out Texas”.  Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

3.Osage landscape- Landscape scale views of the Osage Questas portion of the greater or general Flint Hills Region, all of which is in the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province (Fenneman, 19ps. 605-618). Here in the southernmost extension of the Flint Hills this has traditionally been known as the Prairie Plains (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 616-617) parent material is alternatively limestone or sandstone. The rangeland presented here was primarily in the limestone or "strong grass" country of the Osage where herbage is generally more nutritious and cattle gains greater than on the sandstone-derived soils. Cross Timbers vegetation develops on sandstone-derived soils however. This tallgrass prairie-Cross Timbers range was on the western edge of the Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). The patches of woodland are part of the Eastern Cross Timbers dominated by post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Q. marlandica). Soils are the Stephenville-Darnell series that comprise Sandy Savanna to Shallow Savanna range sites. Tallgrass prairie vegetation is the classic Four Horsemen of the Prairies (big and little bluestems, Indiangrass, and Switchgrass) with wild alfalfa (Psoralea tenuifolia) as dominant forb This classic tallgrass prairie grassland was on Coweta and Bates soil series that made up Shallow Praiirie and Loam Prairie range sites. Prairie Peninsula (Transeau, 1935) was treated immediately below. Osage County, Oklahoma. May; vernal aspect. This natural vegetational mosaic was a combination of FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), 72 (Oak Savanna). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

4. Woods in the prairie- Edges of tallgrass bluestem-dominated prairie and gallary forest in the Flint Hills. The prairie range was comprised primarily by the Four Horseman of the Prairies along with eastern gamagrass. Baldwin ironweed (center of first photograph) and whole-leaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium) (lower left corner of second photograph) were common forbs. Characteristically both forbs were composites. Gallary or fringing forest has generally been applied to tropical vegetation as in regions of rain-forests and savannahs, but ecologists have adopted its use for temperate regions as well. In general a gallary forest is one that follows along streams from stream bank to exterior of the forest where outer edge of this forest contacts adjoining and different (often drastically so) vegetation such as grassland or savanna. Gallary forest includes the riparian zone but extends beyond it to include all woodland or forest that extended consistently from creek, river, etc. to another kind of vegetation. Gallary forests are by definition limited to stream-based, stream-contacting forests that meet another formation or some lower level of major plant community. Gallary forests are not to be confused with streamside forest vegetation bounded by forests (even if this forest plant community differs from the woody riparian vegetation). In the terminology and basic concepts of Landscape Ecology, gallary forests are corridors within a matrix of non-forest vegetation or corridors that connect different landscape matrices and/or patches.Gallary forest were extremely valuable (especially given their limited size as corridors) native forest communities in pre-Columbian grassland and savannas, especially of central North America. Most gallary and riparian forests were treated in this publication inside various chapters of Forests and Woodlands. This example of gallary forest was included here for consistency and comprehensiveness in describing tallgrass prairie range vegetation. Another example of gallary forest-tallgrass prairie edge (forest-grassland ecotone) was presented later in this Tallgrass Prairie (Interior) chapter in context of the North American Prairie Peninsula. Major tree species of the gallery forest introduced here were given in the caption for the next succeeding photograph that revealed the interior of this fringing forest with its general structure. Kings Creek, Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, early August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

5. Gallery forest in Flint Hills tallgrass prairie- This is a veiw standing in virgin tallgrass prairie of the Four Horsemen prairie grasses (big bluestem is dominant and eastern gamagrass is the main associate with Baldwin ironweed the conspicuous forb) looking into a gallery forest dominated by bur and chinquapin oaks (Quercus muhlenbergii) and common or western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and American or white elm (Ulmus americana) as associates. A gallery forest describes the narrow forest community that grows along the corridor of a water course. It is not only the riparian vegetation that grows directly in the hydric habitat but also forest vegetation growing beyond wet soil. The physiogonomy and mosaic pattern at this close distance resembles that of the Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). Kings Creek, Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, early August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

6. Patch of hardwoods in an Osage prairie- Interior of a gallary forest or, more specifically, an open forest or big tree-savanna by an ephemeral stream or drainage within (completely surrounded by) tallgrass prairie. This bottomland savanna or open forest consisted of black oak (Quercus velutina), bur oak, sycamore green ash, and red mulberry (Morus rubra) with a grassy understorey of tallgrass species including the obvious eastern gamagrass plus big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), Canada wildrye, and purpletop (Tridens flavus) plus tickclover (Desmodium spp.) as the major herbaceous legume. Blackberry (Rubus spp.) was the dominant understorey shrub. It grew in colonies (ie. blackberry patches). Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans) grew up most of the large trees thereby forming an interrupted layer of liana (woody vine). Poison oak (Rhus toxicodendron= Toxicodendron radicans= Rhus radicans) was also present as a liana though at less abundance. In the conceptual framework of Landscape Ecology this open canopy bottomland hardwood forest or hardwood-tallgrass savanna (depending on interpretation) was a patch within a matrix of tallgrass prairie. Structure and species composition of this bottomland savanna or open forest range was remarkably similar (almost identical by standards of vegetation) to the gallary forest. The bottomland savanna was in the southern Osage Questas portion of the Central Lowlands physiographic province whereas the gallary forest treated immediately above was in the Flint Hills portion of the Central Lowlands. Both of these samples of tree-dominated vegetation were quite similar to the ecotone between tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest in the Ozark Plateau to the east and the Cross Timbers to the west and south. In fact, the Western Cross Timbers extend through this same area so that distinction among these tree-dominated plant communities becomes problematic and of little practical importance. Examples of this ecotonal or savanna range vegetation was treated in part at this juncture to show continuity within such natural vegetation and for comprehensive coverage of range plant communities found within the general tallgrass prairie region and the partially conterminous Prairie Peninsula that prior to modification by european man extended eastward and northward from southern and central parts of the tallgrass prairie. An example of actual or per se Prairie Peninsula range vegetation was included later in this chapter.

Chapman-Barnard Ranch, Osage County, Oklahoma. Vernal aspect. May. General range vegetation was FRES No, 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Specific vegetation of this bottomland hardwood-tallgrass savanna was FRES NO. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and oak-hickory [K-91]), closest SRM designation was SRM 731 (Cross Timbers, Oklahoma) in Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

Flint Hills form of tallgrass prairie- The Flint Hills is a specific portion of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. In common (informal or layman's usage) "Flint Hills" is used generically in reference to tallgrass prairie in Kansas and Oklahoma underlaid with limestone and sandstone rock which has protected the wonderful grasslands, some of the finest natural pasture on Earth, from the ravishes of the plow. In precise usage, Flint Hills is a much more restricted, physiographically defined geologic area. The Flint Hills, along with the Chautauqua Hills and Osage Cuestas or Questas are in the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Fenneman (1938, ps. 605-620 and, especially, ps. 614-616) remains the definitive authority. This is sometimes referred to as the Osage Plains as, for instance, by Orme (2002, ps. 343-345) which is another outstanding source. The most accurate mapping of these various physiographic units may well be the Kansas Offficial Transportation Map (Kansas Department of Transportation, various years) which showed delinations within Kansas counties. This and the Kansas Geological Survey on the web (under GeoKansas) were obviously taken from the seminal work of Schoewe (1949). The Flint Hills are regarded as a cuesta (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 606-609), a term of varied though similar meanings. American Geological Institute (Gary et al., 1972) offered two sikghtly different definitions of cuesta with the first being the one that most fit the usage applied to Flint Hills and Osage Cuestas: "A hill or ridge with a gentle slope on one side and a steep slope on the other; specifically, an asymmetric ridege (as in SW U.S.) with one face (dip slope) long and gentle and conforming with the dip on the resistant bed or beds that form it, and the opposite face (scarp slope) steep or even cliff-like and formed by the outcrop of the reisitant rocks, the formation of the ridge being controlled by the differential erosion of the genctly inclined strata." Tless resistant stratum (layer) of he Flint Hills was the

7. Framed in "Flint"- Landscape view of the picturesque and productive Flint Hills of Kansas, one of the largest remaining expanses of tallgrass prairie and, as often claimed, "God's own steer country". Grassland vegetation in this view was typical Four Horsemen of the Prairies grasses (big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, and swithcgrass). There were at least two range sites on this tallgrass prairie landscape: 1) Loamy Upland in the foreground and 2) Limy Upland in background. Shallow Limy range site was behind the Limy Upland and not visible in this photograph. On the Loamy Upland range site big bluestem was the dominant and switchgrass of upland ecotype(s) was the associate. On the Limy Upland little bluestem was dominant while Indiangrass was the associate species. Sideoats grama dominated the Limy Upland range site with little bluestem being the associate. Rangeland viewed here constituted a toposequence, specifically a toposequence of soils or a catena. Catena was defined by the Soil Science Society of America (2001) as "a sequence of soils of about the same age, derived from similar parent material, and occurrring under similar climatic conditions, but having different characteristics due to variation in relief and in drainage". Soils constituted the primary basis of the range sites. Geologically speaking the geomorphic/physiographic material of the Flint Hills is that of limestone, chert, and, even, some shale in bedrock tracing to the Permian Age. There is a "protecting mantle of flints" in some areas of the Flint Hills section of the Central Lowland province that are remains of a former peneplain. Geologic erosion of this flint left the deeper limestones and cherts so that the Flint Hills is a cuesta with distinct terraces and incised stream valleys that dissect this escarpment (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 606-609, 614-618).As used here "flint" was in reference to chert which is less water soluble than limestone so that with weathering and geologic erosion there remained remnants of chert ("flint" in this application) as gravel. This cherty gravel is the remains of Permian Age beds on the land surface that was once overlaid by inland seas (GeoKansas, Kansas Geological Survey, Undated). In other words, the Flint Hills are actually limestone and chert not flint at all. To add further confusion, the designation of Flint Hills is misapplied or, at least, loosely if not carelessly applied as a generic or catchall category for all tallgrass prairie in Kansas and northern Oklahoma. In this loose usage "Flint Hills" includes the adjoining Smoky Hills to the west, adjoining Osage Cuestas to the east, the Chautauqua Hills to the southeast, and even the Great Bend and Arkansas River lowlands to the west. Similarity of vegetation across the natural grasslands of this region attest to the "veto power" of climate over edaphic and topographic features in final determination of regional climax vegetation. The Chautauqua Hills that were formed from Douglas sandstone (Fenneman, 1939, ps. 613-614) are the greatest deviation from the general tallgrass prairie vegetation. In this physiographic section the climax plant community is that of the Cross Timbers savanna rather than grassland communities. Distinction and precise application of Flint Hills was followed herein as were later discussions of the range vegetation of adjoining physiographic sections of the Central Lowlands province. Proper designations as to physiographic and geologic bases of tallgrass prairie vegetation was of practical, utilitarian importance. For example, cattlemen have long known that performance of cattle, especially of stockers, is noticably greater for the "strong grass" on limestone-derived soils such as the Flint Hills in contrast to the "weaker grass" on soils that developed from sandstone like those of the Chautauqua Hills. Marion County, Kansas. Mid-July (early estival aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

8. Blessed are the rocks- Flint Hills tallgrass prairie saved from the plow by an outcropping of limestone rocks from the Permian Period. This sequencial two-slide study of virgin sod in climax state was a rock outcrop form of the Limy Upland range site. This rangeland was shown in the background of the slide immediately above. Major grasses were little bluestem, big bluestem, Indiangrass, sideoats grama, and switchgrass (in that approximate order based on apparent foliar cover, plant density, and general abundance). Hairy grama and even buffalograss were locally abundant on shallow microsites, often beside outcropped rocks. Shrubs were not present and forbs were the same as absent. This range had historically been summer steer range, but it had not been grazed during the current growing season. Big bluestem and Indiangrass had not begun to bolt (send up) sexual shoots in this immediate area. These same tallgrasses were in full-bloom stage on this same day about thirty miles to the south.. Note on equipment: this was the same slide (Fujichrome Provia 100F in this instance) scanned on two consecutive days with the same Epson scanner (Perfection 700) that had not been turned off, re-set, or had any other modification. This is simply an example of the inconsistency (lack of precision operation) of this apparatus. Never buy an Epson product. Marion County, Kansas. Mid-July (early estival aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Limy Upland range site. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

9. Blessed are wet soils- Tallgrass prairie on a generally wet upland soil potentially dominated by switchgrass with big bluestem and, probably, prairie cordgrass as associates comprising the climax range vegetation. This stocker (steer) range was in Good range condition class with more big bluestem, tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper var. asper), Indiangrass, and sideoats grama relative to switchgrass than would be expected on Excellent condition range for this Clay Upland range site. There was relatively little prairie cordgrass and no visible plants of eastern gamagrass, two species that dominated more mesic forms of Clay Upland elsewhere in the Flint Hills (see below). The potential (climax) species composition of this grassland community was not known precisely, but it was most probably a switchgrass-prairie cordgrass form of wet tallgrass prairie though still with plenty of big bluestem. The major forbs on this steer pasture were Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii var. interior), wooly vervain (Verbena stricta), and wild alfalfa or manyflowered scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia var. floribunda). There were no shrubs on this prairie range. Annual burning is widespread in this locality and this pasture undoubtedly had been burnt countless times by both redman and whites. Poor drainage can, like stoniness, be an edaphic feature that precludes tillage. Most field crops are mesophytes that require at least moderately well-drained soils. Poorly drained soils, especially thost that remain near the saturation point for prolonged periods, are unfit or, at least, marginal for production of row crops and small grains. Such wet soils are farmable only with expensive drainage. If in addition to excessive wetness such soils are not overly fertile to begin with and/or are in areas prone to drought it is not economically feasible to try to farm them. Instead, the native wet grassland is left for use as range. This is why rangemen sing praises for poorly drained as well as rock-strewn soils. Marion County, Kansas. Mid-July (early estival aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

10. Famed Flint Hills-Strong grass = good steer country. Four Horsemen grasses with lots of forbs such as lead plant (Amorpha canescens) and wild alfalfa or slender scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia). Riley County, Kansas. July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

11. Flint Hills bluestem prairie range- Long-yearling (more like just shy of two-year-olds) steers (some weighing in excess of 700 pounds) grazing tallgrass prairie in the Flint Hills cuesta (so named for a thin, veneerlike mantle of flint and chert overlaying Permian limestone). This is an example of the famed Flint Hills of Kansas (the formation extends some distance into northern Oklahoma) often regarded as one of the greatest natural cattle pastures on Earth and second only to the equally famous and fabulous tallgrass prairie of the Sand Hills of Nebraska. Precisely speaking, much of the general tallgrass prairie pasture region in central and eastern parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska and the western portion of Missouri that are known generically as the Flint Hills are actually several geologically distinctive portions of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Even in Kansas, most of the tallgrass (bluestem) prairie was in geologic units separate and distinct from the Flint Hills as strictly defined geologically. These other physiographic units include the Cherokee Prairie, Osage Questa, Chautauqua Hills, Glaciated Region, and Wellington and McPherson Lowlands. The Osage Questa and Flint Hills units with their limestone excarpments and adjacent proximity closely resemble each other (as can be seen by comparison of slides from both). The Chautauqua Hills sub-province is distinguished geologically by thick sandstone bedrock, but as it wedges up into the Osage Questa as a narrow peninsula and forms part of historical political units and famous grazing grounds like Osage County (Reservation), Oklahoma this distinctive unit is lumped as "Flint-- sometimes, Osage-- Hills". Students are referred throughout this web publication to the timeless classic two-volume set on United States physiography by Fenneman. For geologic units just listed see Fenneman (1938, ps. 605-618). In some years the Kansas Official Transportation Map clearly delinates these physiographic units. Big bluestem was easily the dominant on this steer range with Indiagrass and upland switchgrass coming in as "runners-up". Prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), little bluestem, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) were well-represtented but relatively rare. The most common forb was Illinhois bundleflower, but it had been grazed so heavily as to be less conspicuous than invader forbs like Baldwin ironweed and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). A fenceline contrast comparing utilization of palatable forbs under heavier early stocking (Intensive Early Stocking or a grazing practice similar to it) for this same pasture and herd was presented in the following slide. Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. Viewers should bear in mind that big bluestem, the dominant species of the vegetation seen here, is a short shoot or "culmless" grass that does not elongate the culm above the basal leaves until late in the growing season (usually late July or early August in this location). As such, on bluestem prairie the namesake "tallgrass" growth habit does not occur (and therefore the characteristic physiogonomy of tallgrass prairie is not apparent) until late in the growing season. This is often in the autumnal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

12. Visual comparison of ungrazed vegetation of bluestem prairie to that grazed by steers under heavier stocking early in the growing season- The ungrazed sward in the foreground was just outside the fence from the big bluestem-dominated range shown in the preceding slide. The area (both sides of the fence) had been burned off at onset of the current growing season (ie. "this spring"). Foliar cover of Illinois bundleflower was obviously greater where protected from grazing (which in this instance was more intensive utilization in the first part of the growing season). The grass in the immediate foreground was switchgrass, a long shoot species (one that elongates its culm and apical meristem higher earlier in the growing season). Some cattlemen and range-leasing landowners either suspect or have concluded from their personal observations that heavier stocking, and consequent heavier degrees of use, early in the growing (= warm) season reduced populations of the more palatalble forbs, espcially legumes. Limited scientific data have been presented on responses of tallgrass prairie forbs to Intensive-Early Stocking. Owensby et al. (1988) reported that there were no consistent differences among stocking rate treatments on Intensive-Early Stocking of Flint Hills bluestem range, but their data and conclusions were of forb biomass only. Owensby et al. (1988) were not specific as to responses of individual species of forbs. It was not shown whether biomass, cover, density, etc. changed among decreasers like Illinois bundleflower and Maxmillian sunflower versus invaders like western ragweed. Was biomass of certain species the same under Intensive-Early Stocking as under traditional management or did biomass of decreasers decline while biomass of invaders increased (or vice versa)? The author was told by some landowners that management involving heavier stocking early in the growing season (either Intensive-Early Stocking or similar grazing management) had adverse impacts on decreaser forbs, especially legumes (personal communication, R.E. Lenington, DVM, MS, Cedar Vale, Kansas). Flint Hills portion of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

13. Steer range in the famed Flint Hills- Tallgrass prairie range in the Osage Plains or Osage Section (the generic Flint Hills Region) has, under grazing use by whiteman, been steer rather than cow-calf country. The nutritive value and palatability of the tallgrass species coupled with gently rolling, easy traveling topography make for natural pasture that is ideal for putting on a lot of rapid, efficient gains (Average Daily Gain) on stocker cattle. This big bluestem-dominated range was an example of the high-quality feed typical of this range type in central Kansas and northern Oklahoma. This is some of the fbest natural pasture for growing cattle available anywhere, period. On this range upland switchgrass and prairie dropseed were the two main associates to big bluestem. Other major grasses included little bluestem, Indiangrass, and Canada wildrye. Most of the forbs on this range were legumes including leadplant (Amorpha canadensis), both purple and white prairie clover (Petalostmon purpureum, P. candidum), Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis), and wild alfalfa (Psoralea tenuifolia). Tall gayfeather (Liatris aspera) was the most common, abundant composite. The main woody species was New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus). The sward of this particular pasture was presented in the next two photographs. Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

14. God's own pasture mix- Sward of the Flint Hills range introduced in the preceding two photographs. Main three grasses (in order) were big bluestem, upland switchgrass, and prairie dropseed. Little bluestem, Indiangrass, and Canada wildrye were next in oredr of abundance and overall importance. Most forbs were legumes including (in relative order) leadplant, purple prairie clover, white prairie clover, Illinois bundleflower, and wild alfalfa or slender scurfpea. Tall gayfeather was the most common composite. New Jersey tea was about the only woody species present. Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

15. Flint Hills upland range- A predominately south slope on a large hill in the famed Flint Hills. Big bluestem was the dominant and switchgrass was the associate species. This range had been stocked with steers which had been shipped a few days prior to photograph. Two "photo-quadrants" of this range vegetation just outside (across the fence from) this range were shown in the next two slides. Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

16. Sward of upland tallgrass prairie- Two "photo-quadrants" of the south slope big bluestem-switchgrass Flint Hills range introduced in the preceding slide. These "photographic samples" were taken just a few yards across the fence from the south slope range where protection from grazing by steers permitted more detailed presentation of the species composition and physiogonomy of this climax range vegetation in early summer of a typical warm-growing season. Herbaceous species present included big bluestem (the dominant), upland switchgrass (the associate), little bluestem, silver bluestem (Andropogon saccharoides), purple prairie clover, compassplant (Silphium laciniatum) willowleaf sunflower (Helianthus salicifolius), and tall gayfeather. The only shrub was New Jersey tea. Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

17. The dominant began to do its thing- Flint Hills tallgrass prairie at early bloom stage in big bluestem, the dominant species of this range and the Flint Hills section in general. Other major grasses on this particuar pasture included switchgrass, Indiangrass, little bluestem, prairie cordgrass, Canada wildrye, tall dropseed, and sideoats grama. Other grassses of infrequent occurrence ranged from eastern gamagrass to blue grama, hairy grama, and buffalograss. Almost all of these grasses were warm-season species except Canada wildrye which was about the only cool-season species that had any appreciable cover. The most common forb was Maximillian sunflower which was downright inconspicuous compared to its domination of the "prairie spotlight" when it reaches its maximum size and is in full bloom. The first slide was of range vegetation in the pasture that was being grazed by steers. The second slide was outside the pasture with barbed wire readily visible. This second photograph presented big bluestem with zero livestock grazing (and no defoliation by deer being evident). Comparsion of ungrazed big bluestem (second slide) with big bluestem, as well as other tallgrass species, on the cattle-stocked pasture (first slide) served as a pictorial guide to light degree of use under light or conservative stocking. This range was obviously pristine. Range condition class was Excellent and, to reiterate, degree of use was light. Stocking rate could have higher (greater degree of use such as, say, moderate) and still maintained the climax condition of this big bluestem-dominated range, but if a drought comes this range and the steers on it will come through in much better shape than those on which stocking rates were greater. The author "cherry picked" this example to show students the standard of perfection for native bluestem pasture in the Flint Hills being managed under tender, loving care of a faithful steward who knew (and cherished) what he had. Salute and three cheers! Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Loamy Upland range site. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

18. Another grassland community (and a comparison of grazing intensity) in the Flint Hills- In contrast to the more typical big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie (the regional or zonal climax) that was presented immediately above, a more favorable (and more restricted) form of tallgrass grassland in the Central Lowlands province was this one seen here on which the potential (climax) dominant species was eastern gamagrass with prairie cordgrass being the associate species on moister habitats and big bluestem the associate on less mesic microsites. The surface of this rangeland had many local depressions that caught and retained greater quantities of water. Such microtopography provided more mesic microenvironments that supported these more moisture-requiring tallgrass species. This climax range vegetation was presented in the first of these two slides. It was on highway right of way immediately adjacent to (just outside the pasture fence) of an overgrazed pasture stocked with Angus cow-calf pairs. The second slide was inside the overgrazed pasture which had been degraded through years of overuse. The overgrazed range was dominated by big bluestem on some local, less mesic habitats, but by hairy fimbry (Fimbristylis puberula) on the more mesic microenvironments. Big bluestem had more or less held its own on the drier habitats at some locations, but under continued overuse eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass had been grazed out and their places taken over by hairy fimbry. This was a textbook example of range deterioration through the process of retrogression, the retrograde (opposite the forward direction of plant sucession) changes in plant communities on the sere of this range site. Retrogrsssion occurred by the phenomenon of grazing selectivity through which range animals exhibit their preferences for species that are more palatable (have greater or higher palatability) to them. Eastern gamagrass is one of the most palatable of all tallgrass species to bovids (cattle and buffalo). Prairie cordgrass is considerably less palatable to the bovids, but it is readily eaten by them and also subject to overuse. Hairy fimbry has a palatability somewhere between bailing wire and the box it came in. Any range consumer--other than rust (the kind left over after iron is consumed)--would prefer these two tallgrass species to hairy fimbry. Overstocking, too high a stocking rate, (with cattle on this range) led to overuse--excessive defoliation (exceeding proper degree of use)--of eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass. Overuse eventually weakened plants of these two palatable tallgrass species putting them at a competitive disadvantage to hairy fimbry which was not even touched (or same as) by cattle (or anything else with teeth). Over years or decades of overuse eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass were grazed out and replaced by hairy fimbry. At this point the condition of overgrazing had been reached. Longterm overuse leades to overgrazing. This change in species composition whereby more palatable species and those of higher successional order (climax decreaser species in this instance) were replaced by a plant species of lower successional order (hairy fimbry is a seral species that is an invader on this range site) was range deterioration Again, range degradation took place over time through the process of range retrogression as a function of grazing selectivity. Degree of use (a function of stocking rate) on big bluestem had not been so great as to remove this decreaser from this range. In this example, it was only or, at least, primarily eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass that had been eliminated or greatly reduced by overgrazing. Important: successional status (decreaser, increaser, invader) is range site-specific. The range site of the pasture shown here was Clay Upland versus examples of Loamy Upland and Limy Upland range sites that were shown above. On Clay Upland there was proportionately greater soil moisture so that eastern gamagrass was the dominant and prairie cordgrass was the associate on low-lying wet areas and big bluestem was the principal associate on higher, drier habitats. On the still yet drier (less mesic) Loamy Upland range site big bluestem was the potential natural dominant. On Clay Upland, even if big bluestem (instead of hairy fimbry) dominated habitats once dominated by eastern gamagrass and/or prairie cordgrass the range would still be overgrazed. It would still be degraded because the climax dominants were replaced. Loss of these dominants was the only requirement, the only dynamic needed, in regards to the range vegetation for the condition of overgrazing to have occurred (or continue to be occurring). What plant species replaced the natural dominants was relevant only to the extent that replacement species were diagnostic as to severity of overgrazing (of range retrogression) and indicative (ie. such plants were indicator species) of how much time would be necessary for range recovery (or if range restoration was possible in practical time frames without corrective human action). To reiterate the point, even dominance by big bluestem, the major dominant of the regional climax, on a range site where some other plant species was (were) the natural dominant(s) would not override the successional fact of overgrazing. Range condition class and, more importantly, range trend is range site-specific. Successional status of range plant species and which plant species serve as indicator species varies as to range site. Range sites have been regarded as the smallest, most distinctive unit of range having a characteristic vegetation that is practical to recognize, describe, map, etc. Out of practical necessity all mapping and descriptive units are generalities (though at a higher level of resolution) and products of compromises among defining vriables. There are variations and exceptions within all range sites the same as within soil series or other map units. All Clay Upland range sites share common specifics, but not all Clay Upland sites are the same. Microtopography with numerous depressions in the land surface on this rangeland made this form of Clay Upland distinct from others without such microrelief. The numerous "mini-ponds" of topographic "pockmarks" of this form of Clay Upland supported eastern gamagrass whereas switchgrass was the most mesic dominant on other Clay Upland sites in this area of Flint Hills that did not have as as large or as many depressions in the land surface. Clarification: some range plant species are regarded as ice cream species: "An exceptionally palatable species sought and grazed frequently by livestock or game animals. Such species are often overutilized under proper grazing" (Jacoby, 1989). On some ranges and, more specifically, range sites eastern gamagrass is an ice cream species. It was NOT on the range (range site) presented. Instead, eastern gamagrass was the climax dominant over much of the Clay Upland especially in local depressions that were common on this range. Certainly, prairie cordgrass was not an ice cream species, least of all on Clay Upland. Replacement of these palatable species by hairy fimbry--that apparently nothing eats (or eats much of)--could not be written off as anything other than overgrazing. This dramatic change in dominance was not the phenomenon of ice cream species. Butler County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

19. Could a'been a century ago- Texas longhorn cows and calves grazing the standard Four Horsemen (big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass) tallgrass prairie in the Flint Hills of the Osage Plains of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Second slide stressed importance of abundant, clean water to livestock production and as a major tool in achieving Proper Distribution of Grazing Use, one of the Four Cardinal Principles of Range Manageament. The tallgrass prairie shown here was roughly equal parts of the Four Horsemen with big bluesttem first among equals. Abundant cover of numerous other grasses ranging from prairie dropseed down to buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides). Major forbs were Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis) and leadplant (Amorpha canadensis). About the only shrubs were buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) and roughleaf or rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus drummondii). The only tree species present was bois d'arc, Osage orange, or hedgeapple (Maclura pomifera), a species probably introduced by whiteman (for a living fence; now used for the most durable of wood posts) and browsed by his cattle as evidenced by hedging of specimens in both of these photographs. Invasion by bois d'arc was not a good sign: if this alien (to these parts) brush species is not controlled it will take over this otherwise Excellent condition class range. Crowley County, Kansas. Late June; late vernal asepct. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

20. The way it looks when grazed by pairs- Appearance of big bluestem-little bluestem-Indiangrass-switchgrass-prairie dropseed range in the Flint Hills form of tallgrass prairie when grazed by cows and calves. Bluestem ranges grazed by stocker cattle (usually steers) consist almost entirely of current season's plant growth. There is little, if any, dead (standing or downed) herbage, aboveground plant material, on stocker pasture. This is because 1) grazing has been heavy enough and started early in the growing season that herbage from the previous growing season has been consumed and/or 2) ranges were burnt off prior to the warm growing season (fired in late winter or early spring) to increase availability to fresh feed. By contrast, bluestem pastures used as range for cows and calves must of necessity be grazed lighter during the plant growing season in order to allow adequate accumulations of dead, dried herbage for winter feed for dry, pregnant, spring-calving cows or feed for wet cows and their calves if fall-calving is practiced. Also, ranges used for pasturing pairs are burnt less frequently so as to used herbage for feed instead of fuel. The typical negative price structure for stockers (younger, smaller, lighter calves fetch more per cwt. than older, larger, heavier calves) means that profit can be made from stockers only by putting on sufficent weight during the grazing season (high Average Daily Gain; greater total weight gain over pasturing period). In other words, high levels of performance by individual animals--and range feed conditions conducive to high performance--is more critical for stocker than for cow-calf production. A corollary to this is that steers are run on ranges that provide more dry matter and more palatable, higher-quality (greater concerntrations of nutrients) cattle diets whereas cows and calves are grazed on ranges that furnish lower-quality, less palatable forage. Also pairs are stocked on rougher country: steep, rocky, brushy, etc. grazing lands do not provide overall good-quality pasturage that permits high levels of individual animal performance that are necessary for the typically low profit margins characteristic of stocker cattle. Compare the appearance of this sward on a cow-calf range to that from steer ranges shown above. Crowley County, Kansas. Late June; late vernal asepct. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

Osage Cuestas (=Questas) form of tallgrass prairie- Presented in the following section were examples of tallgrass prairie range in the Osage Cuestas, one of the western portions, of the Central Lowlands physiographic province immediately to the east of the Flint Hills portion of the Central Lowlands. Note: although some of the level III ecosystems for Kansas Chapman et al., 2001). took the names of the physiographic provinces Fenneman, 1938), these two did not coincide completely. For example, Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a extended eastward into the Osage Cuestas (=Questas) physiographic unit so that the Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b is smaller than the Osage Cuestas physiographic section (comparison of Fenneman, 1938, ps. 614-616 to Chapman et al., 2001). Same situation obtained for level III ecoregions of Oklahoma (Woods et al., 2005) as compared to physiographic units of Fenneman (1938). Source of confusion.

21. Upland tallgrass (bluestem) prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and prairie dropseed the associate species on this Osage Questas tallgrass prairie range stocked with steers under Intensive Early Stocking. Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the next two important species (based on both apparent dominance and biomass or herbage production). There were some invaders like Baldwin ironweed, Johnsongrass, curly dock (Rumex crispus), tall fescue, and smooth bromegrass. Silver bluestem and buffalograss were the major native grasses that were in the increaser and invader categories, respectively. Decreaser forbs included Maxmillian sunflower, compass plant, Illinois bundleflower, and leadplant. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

22. Bluestem prairie grazed by stockers- Tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem with prairie dropseed as the associate being grazed by a mixed (both steers and heifers) herd of stocker cattle under Intensive Early Stocking. Note the degree of use on this bluestem-dropseed tallgrass range at beginning of summer (mid-June). Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the other two of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies grasses that were abundant on this outstanding natural pasture. Little bluestem frequently ranks a distant fourth among the Four Horsemen on tallgrass prairie pastures in the Osage-Flint Hills sections of the Central Lowland grasslands. Illinois bundleflower and leadplant were present but heavily grazed. The main mid-grass species was sideoats grama; the most common shortgrass species were hairy grama and buffalograss. Mid- and shortgrass species were restricted to localized microsites (perhaps formed partly by spotgrazing). In species composition (density, cover, biomass, etc.) these latter groups constituted nothing even approaching their proportions typical of mixed prairie. A mere listing of species on this form of tallgrass prairie likely would not be different from a species list taken on mixed prairie, except for an occasional species. The difference is in relative proportion of the same, rather than in different, species of grasses. (The swards presented in these slides of tallgrass prairie should be compared to those of mixed prairie in that portion of this publication.) There were traces of three introduced (agronomic) grasses that would automatically be classified as invaders and that purist prairiemen regard as weeds: smooth bromegrass, tall fescue, and Johnsongrass. This range had been fired approximately two months prior to this photograph. Tallgrass prairies used for stocker ranges in this "neck of the woods" are traditionally burnt just before green-up each spring, or at least every few years. Otherwise, in instances where cattlemen lease range from local landowners, stocker operators demand a lower pasture rental fee. Osage Questa sub-unit of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Limestone is the underlying parent material. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

23. Steers and heifers grazing tallgrass prairie range in the Osage Questa portion of the once vast bluetem prairie region. Note the thrifty condition and degree of finish on these cattle. They are literally grass-fat which attest to the "strength" (high nutritive value) of this native forage. Degree of use and herbage cover on the land is typical of Intensive Early Stocking which was being used on this range. Close-up of the same range and herd presented in the preceding slide. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

24. Ungrazed sward- Upland tallgrass prairie range that had not been grazed by livestock (and barely touched by wildlife) in the current plant-growing season. Furthermore this pasture had not been burnt this spring as shown by numerous dead last year's shoots. This wider view of ungrazed range vegetation presented the physiogonomy, botanical composition, and structure of the vernal society of a Four-Horsemen- of-the-Prairies Flint Hills grassland. This specific grassland community was dominated by an ecotype of upland switchgrass that had unusually wide leaves that formed a "nearly pure" consociation of this species. Big bluestem was the associate species. Redtop panicgrass (Panicum rigidulum) was also present. Some plants of buckbrush or coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus). Greenwood County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

25. Grazed by stocker cattle- A fenceline contrast of Flint Hills tallgrass prairie showing ungrazed sward of highway right-of-way (left) and inside a range grazed by stockers (mostly steers) but not burned this spring (right). Spot grazing and appearance of wold plants was already taking place by late spring and there was still quite a bit of the stocker grazing season remaining (depending, of course, on summer rainfall and consequent soil moisture). The dominant range plant was switchgrass (an ecotype of the upland form). Big bluestem was the associate species. Greenwood County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

26. Grassland diversity- Upland tallgrass prairie of Four Horsemen grasses with switchgrass the most abundant and little bluestem the having least cover and lowest density of the four. This range had not been grazed during the current growing season so that species composition, physiogonomy, and structure of the late vernal society was most visible. Botanical composition was visible in both the general or physiogonomic perspective (first slide) and a close-in "photoplot" view (second slide). In addition to the tallgrass species there were a number of forbs, including palatable legumes, present. Forb species included wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), blue wild indigo (Baptisia australis), leadplant (Amorpha canescens), wild alfalfa or scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia) among the legumes and two conspicuous composites, ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis) and giant or great ironweed (Vernonia crinita). Chase County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

27. Stockers on tallgrass hills- Okie steers (from about seven hundred to almost eight hundred pounds) on Flint Hills tallgrass prairie range. This was grassland was comprised primarily of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies grasses. Switchgrass was the most abundant plant species while big bluestem was the associate species. The ungrazed range plant community was presented in several slides-photo captions immediately below. Two behavioral patterns of cattle were evident in these photographs. Cattle, especially younger cattle, are quite curious and will often come right up to visiting humans if they move slowly enough. This is particularily the case if people remain outside the pasture fences, at least until cattle have adjusted to human presence. These three slides were taken with a wide angle (28mm) lens so steers were quite a bit closer than they appeared in photographs. The second behavior shown in these slides was the tendency of cattle newly introduced into a pasture to walk fence lines, the grazable boundaries of the range. Repeated walking of fence boundaries was evident in all three of these slide (and the first of the two-slide set immediately below) by the deep cattle paths cut through the dense, tough prairie sod down to the soil surface. Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Chase County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

28. What neither stockers nor fire consumed- Perimeter five-wire fence separating stocker range of Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie which was shown in the preceding three-slide set from highway right-of-way made an exclosure of prairie vegetation on the outside fencerow. This ungrazed (by stocker cattle) range plant community was on the right in the first of these two slides and in fore- and midground of second slide. This particular range (and exclosure) had not been burnt this year (not fired in spring or late winter prior to current warm-growing season) so undecomposed biomass of the previous year was present along with current year herbage. Switchgrass and big bluestem were dominant and associate plant species, respectively, in the exclosure although range vegetation was nearly a "pure stand" consociation of switcvhgrass. The major forb was Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illionensis). Purple prairie-clover (Petalostemon purpurea) was the second-most abundant forb (ie. major forbs were native legumes). Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Chase County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

29. In an exclosure- A closer-in view of range vegetation in highway right-of-way (a de facto exclosure) outside the steer range of Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie presented in the three-slide set above the preceding two-slide set (two slide-caption sets above). This local range plant community was a consociation of switchgrass (upland ecotypes) with Illinois bundleflower, a legume of Caespinoideae subfamily, being the main forb. There were some plants of purple prairie-clover, a papilionaceous legume (Papilionoideae subfamily), was the second major forb. Big bluestem was the associate range range species, but this tallgrass is a "short-shoot" or "culmless" grass that does not elongate its culm until much later in the warm-growing season so that it was not prominent in these two "photoplots". By contrast, switchgrass is a "long-shoot" or "culmed" species (a grass that elongates its culm early in the annual growth cycle) such tht it showed up more conspicuously in these "photoquadrants". Indiangrass and little bluestem, the other two Four Horsemen grasses, are "long-shoot" and "short-shoot" grasses, respectively. Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Chase County, Kansas. Mid-June; late vernal aspect. K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

Winter sward- Local assemblage of major grass species on an upland tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau. Local dominant species was tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper), seen as the taller, buckskin-colored shoots, with big bluestem (reddish brown patch in right-center of both slides), and Indiangrass (in front and immediately behind the big bluestem). There were also some shoots of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) in background and lower right corner. This local patch of relict vegetation was in an outside fencerow where lack of grazing defoliation had permitted maximum expression of physiogonomy, structure, and composition of the climax (potential natural) grassland vegetation. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Early January; hibernal aspect (dead herbage; dormant phenological stage).

30. Stockers on Osage spring range- Okie steers from Florida on a loamy prairie range site of the bluestem-Indiagrass prairies in the Osage Questas section of the Central Lowlands. Note physiography of the land and height of the tallgrasses after only one month of growth and relatively heavy stocking. Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma, Early May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

31. Greening up and shedding off- Spring in the Osage brings green-up of the perennial grasses (mostly of Andropogoneae and Paniceae tribes) from their root crowns or proaxes (proaxis is the lowest portion of a grass shoot where the nodes/internodes are stacked close atop one another and where shoot emergence takes place; the point of union of shoot and root portions). Meanwhile the buffalo are shedding their heavy winter pelage or “coats” (buffalo hides were known to buffalo runners, the proper name for buffalo hunters,  as "“robes"and they called the hair “wool”). The two range sites of Loamy Bottomland and Loamy Upland (for the Osage Questas physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands) are visibly divided by the different shades of green in the newly emerged grasses and grasslike plants on this tallgrass prairie. The plants immediately adjacent to the ephemeral stream are spike rush (Eleocharis spp.). Behind this is a zone of switchgrass distinguishable by last year’s dead stalks. Big bluestem dominates the Loamy Upland range site behind. Note the buffalo wallow (and consequent soil erosion) on the ridgeline. Range students should nevr lose sight of the fact that the ecological interaction known as herbivory includes more than actual defoliation. Trambling and even erosion of bare soil are a natural part of herbiivory as are dunging (a form of both defoliation as well as nutrient recycling), propagule dispersal, etc. Tallgras Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma. Early May, vernal aspect, . FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

32. Indian Territory as the redman knew it- Tallgrass prairie that is a consociation of big bluestem in western Osage Plains (Cherokee Prairie) of northeastern Oklahoma (formerly part of Indian Territory prior to statehood). Other tallgrass species included prairie cordgrass (the local associate species) with lesser amounts of switchgrass and Indiangrass. A locally dominant grass around local depressions (potholes) was longspike tridens (Tridens strictus) which is typically characteristic of mid-sere successional states of tallgrass prairie and tallgrass prairie-oak/hickory savanna (Tyrl et al., 2008, p. 181). Forbs included prairie parsley (Polytaenia nuttallii), the conspicuous umbelliferous plant in foreground of the first slide, and southern wild hyacinth.or Atlantic (prairie) camas (Camassia scilloides). This meadow had been burnt approximately three months prior to time of photographs. Such prescribed fires encourage big bluestem including sexual reproduction (grain production) as well as growth and vegetative regeneration. Lone Oak Meadow, Kelly Ranch, Craig County Oklahoma. Mid-May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains 40b Osage Cuestas (Woods et al, 2005).

33. Tallgrass heaven in the spring- A consociation of big bluestem comprised the range plant community of this tallgrass prairie in the Cherokee Prairie of northeastern Oklahoma late spring. Prairie cordgrass was a local associate to even co-dominant in lower-lying microsites of this prairie hay meadow. Longspike tridens was a local dominant around small areas of microrelief that ponded water in wet springs and right after heavy rains (shown below). Switchgrass and Indiangrass were associate species with their relative abundance varying at local scale. The major forb in this vernal aspect/society was southern wild hyacinth or prairie camas which, with its bright pink petals, set off the prairie vegetation at this season. The second of these two slides (vertical image) served as a "photoquadrant" of the sward of the vernal society of this tallgrass prairie with an emphasis on prairie camas or wild hyacinth which was a peak, full-bloom stage. Truly heaven on Earth for a prairieman. Lone Oak Meadow, Kelly Ranch, Craig County Oklahoma. Mid-May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains 40b Osage Cuestas (Woods et al, 2005).

34. Looking into the graass and the sun-View of shoots of big bluestem-dominated sward of tallgrass prairie in western Osage Plains (Cherokee Prairie) in northeastern Oklahoma from a view looking into the bright, spring sun. The immediately preceding four photographs (two sets of two slide-photocaption) and the succeeding slide were of this same tallgrass prairie vegetation (same hay meadow) with sun behind the photographer. By contast, this photograph was takn facing directly into the sun in a cloudless sky. Direction of light flow can have a major affect of photographs-- for the better or worse depending on what the photographer desired to show or the affect he desired to impart to an image. Photography, like management of ranges, pastures, and forests, will alswys be an art form as well as a science. This into-the-sun shot imparted the brightness of a cloudless spring afternoon on the prairie as well as showing details of foliage that could not be displayed with photographs taken away from direction of direct sunlight. The tallgrass prairie, and the view of its sward shown here, was a consociation of big bluestem with prairie cordgrass and longspike tridens as local associates to co-dominants around microhabitats of ponded water (see next slide). Trees in distant background were growing along a small prairie stream. Lone Oak Meadow, Kelly Ranch, Craig County Oklahoma. Mid-May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains 40b Osage Cuestas (Woods et al, 2005).

35. Local pothole made a difference- Microrelief on a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie that resulted in a local depression or wet microhabitat that held water during much of the wet months of April, May, and first half of June as well as after heavy rains at other times of the year. This pothole was a unique microenvironment on a predominately upland prairie. The pothole served as an ideal environment for longspike tridens (the light brown or buff-colored dead grass shoots) and prairie cordgrass, the two co-dominant species of this atypical, local habitat. Although longspike tridens is usually regarded as a species of mid-sere (= an increaser), it is commonly a local climax dominant or co-dominant with other moisture-loving prairie grasses such as prairie cordgrass, eastern gamagrass, and bottomland ecotypes of switchgrass. Lone Oak Meadow, Kelly Ranch, Craig County Oklahoma. Mid-May, vernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains 40b Osage Cuestas (Woods et al, 2005).

36. Grand sweep of the tallgrass prairie- Three landscape-scale views of Osage Cuestas bluestem prairie (the Four Horsemen of the Prairies: big bluestem, little bluestem, , Indiangrass, and switchgrass) with big bluestem the major dominant. Excellent range condition class with both cool-season decreaser grasses as, for example, a lot of Canada or nodding wildrye (Elymus canadensis) and warm-season indicator grasses in addition to the Four Horsemen including lots of prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis). There was also a wide diversity of prairie forbs including Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), Indian plantain (Cacalia tuberosa), wild alfalfa (Psoralea tenuifolia), and antelopehorn milkweed (Asclepias asperula var. decumbens), and common evening primrose (Oenothera strigosia ssp. canovirens ). There were also several species of umbrella sedge (Cyperus spp.). These photographs presented the physiography of the southern Osage Cuestas (of the Osage Plains Section in the Central Lowlands physiogrpahic provinc)e and the physiogonomy of tallgrass prairie in early estival aspect as had been modified by moderate stocking of steers which had just been shipped. Chautauqua County, Kansas. Late June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

37. A treasured meadow- Textbook example of a cherished hay meadow dominated by big bluestem with upland switchgrass as associate species in the Osage Cuestas form of tallgrass parairie. These two photographs were taken at almost the identical global position and within moments of each other in mid-afternoon.. The first of these two photographs was taken under an overcast sky whereas the second photograph was taken just a few minutes later under a full-sun sky. Kodachrome film captured coloration as seen by the human eye so that these two slides showed the difference in color of grassland vegetation as affected by filtered and direct sunlight. A standard, minimum light-filtering skylight was used in front of the wide-angle (28mm) lense. This same difference in cloudy versus cloudless sky was shown in the next photographs whowing sward of this tallgrass meadow. Woodson County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

38. Early summer sward- Details of sward of tallgrass prairie with big bluestem as the dominant species and upland switchgrass as associate species. The major forb was Indian plantain with purple prairie clover the second most common forb. These two species represented the Compositae and Leguminosae, respectively, the first and second major families (based on numbers of species and relative abundance as judged by cover, biomass, density, etc.) of forbs on North American grasslands. The first of these two slides was taken under an overcast sky whereas the second slide was taken just moments later when cumulus clouds that had partially blocked (filtered) sunlight had dissipated. This same contrast was shown in the two immediately preceding photographs. The yellowish tinge to green of foliage in full sun is the same as seen by the human eye. Cloud cover partially blocks some of the natural coloration in living plant tissue. this tends to be more in the yellow and red parts of photosynthetically active radiation of the spectrum (light visible to the human eye). Woodson County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

39. Upland tallgrass prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and eastern gamagrass was the associate species on this form of bluestem praire. Forbs included leadplant, Illinois bundleflower, purple milkweed (Asclepias purpurea), and the naturalized yellow sweet clover (Melilois officinalis). Even on this virgin tallgrass prairie in "mint condition" there were occasional plants of smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

40. King and First Knight of the Round Table- A hay meadow on an upland form of tallgrass prairie in the Osage Cuestas co-dominated by big bluestem and eastern gamagrass. Very few other grass species were present. The other major graminoid on this meadow was whip or tall nut-rush (Scleria triglomerata) which was an associate species in some local habitats (mirosites). In other local environments the associate species was Helianthus maximiliani, Maximilliian sunflower (eg. immediate foreground, second slide). Other important forbs in this climax grassland were common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisilifolia), leadplant (Amorpha canescens), pale Indian plantain (Cacalia tuberosa), and purple prairie-clover. Tall or whip nut-rush is a species that this author has found growing on degraded prairie hay meadows as well as on climax or pristine condition tallgrass prairies over much of the humid zone throughout the Ozark Mountains westward through the Osage Plains into isolated parts of the Flint Hills. Over much of the tallgrass prairie region big bluestem is first in abundance, cover, etc. (as well as palatability to grazing animals) among the Four Horsemen grasses (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 520; Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963, p. 9; Stubbendieck et al., 1992, p. 33; Haddock, 2005, p. 281). Big bluestem is thus sometimes regarded as "king of the tallgrass prairie". Big bluestem is justifiably the State Grass of Kansas and Missouri. Eastern gamagrass or corngrass is typically not a dominant species (based on abundance, cover, biomass, etc.) of climax tallgrass prairie communities except on relatively restricted bottomland range sites where it is often co-dominant with prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). (An example of an eastern gamagrass-prairie cordgrass bottomland community was treated immediately below.) Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

41. More of the King and First Knight- An upland, mesic tallgrass prairie co-dominated by big bluestem and eastern gamagrass. These are two progressively closer-in views of the range plant community introduced in the preceding three-slide side of a prairie hay meadow in the western Osage Plains. The first photograph featured a broad vista of part of the tallgrass meadow dominated by big bluestem with local spots dominated by eastern gamagrass. The second photograph featured an in-your-face view of the foliage within a patch of eastern gamagrass. This hay meadow consisted of such patches alternatively dominated--almost exclusively--by one or the other of these two decreaser grass species (ie. a mosaic of consociations of big bluestem and of eastern gamagrass alternating back-and-forth). The only other major graminoid was the grasslike species, tall or whip nut-rush. Important forbs included Maximilian sunflower, leadplant, purple prairie-clover, common ragweed, pale Indian plantain, and western yarrow (Achillea langulosa), and some species of goldenrod (Solidago sp.) that was unidentifiable in its present vegetative (pre-sexual) state of phenology. For whatever reason, prairie cordgrass which is commonly a co-dominant or, at least, an associate with eastern gamagrass, was not present on this mesic upland site. The next series of slide-caption sets presented such an eastern gamagrass-prairie cordgrass prairie community. Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

42. Now for a bottomland tallgrass community- Within few miles of the mesic, upland tallgrass prairie of big bluestem and eastern gamagrass described in the two preceding slide-caption sets there was an even more mesic and bottomland range site co-dominated by eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass. These two "photoquadrants" of ungrazed highway right-of-way introduced the range vegetation of this bottomland prairie community where protection from livestock grazing (ie. pasture fence and a highway formed a de facto exclosure) was a control plot of the climax (potential natural) vegetation. The large cespitose (bunchgrass) plants were eastern gamagrass, a conspicuous one of which was in late bloom stage in the first "photoplot". The lighter or more pale green (as in the strip in center midground of second "photoplot") was prairie cordgrass that was all in pre-bloom stage.. Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

43. Grazed and (more or less) ungrazed- Three views of a bottomland range site of tallgrass prairie co-dominated by eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass with ungrazed highway right-of-way in foreground and prairie grazed by cow-calf pairs (livestock pasture) in background. Details of the grazed prairie (the cattle range) were presented and described below while these three "photo-transects" presented detailsed study of the ungrazed prairie vegetation. The most glaring difference between prairie vegetation in the cattle range and that of the exclosure (the strip of highway-right-of way land between fence and pavement) was presence of key (= indicator) species of forbs. The three most prominent of these were Maximilian sunflower, annual sunflower (Helianthus annus), and Illinois bundleflower. Plants with large deltoid leaves were annual or common sunflower. Annual sunflower is an extremely variable species, especially phenotypically. McGregor et al. (1986, p. 954) described annual sunflower as "... a huge, polymorphic complex encompassing numerous wild and weedy races...". Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

44. Look what the cattle did- Stark contrast between a pasture grazed by beef cows and calves (right side of fence) and an ungrazed highway right-of-way (left side of fence) on a bottomland range site of tallgrass prairie in the Osage Cuestas. Selective grazing by cows and calves over countless grazing/warm-growing seasons resulted in reduction of eastern gamagrass and consequent, concomittant increase in cover and biomass (relative abundance) of prairie cordgrass with near-elimination of Maximilian sunflower, annual or common sunflower, and Illinois bundleflower. The first and last of these forbs have long been recognized as extremely palatable species, being indicator and species on some range sites (Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963, ps. 82, 136). By contrast annual sunflower (in its undomesticated forms) is generally a weedy species usually regarded as an ecological invader. Although annual sunflower is "a classic indicator of disturbed soil" is is also "... palatable and readily sought out by livestock..." (Tyrl et al.2008, p. 347). High palatability of annual sunflower was evident from the contrast presented here in which the grazed pasture served as typical (grazing) management or, in this case, as the control plot while the right-of-way served as an exclosure. Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

45. Cattle on bottomland tallgrass prairie- General views of a cattle range on a bottomland range site of tallgrass prairie co-dominated by eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass The former species was considerably reduced while dominance by the latter species was greatly expanded via selective grazing by cattle over a number of years. It was shown and explained in the preceding slide and caption that cover and general abundance of Maximilian and annual ssunflowers along with that of Illinois bundleflower was also reduced by cattle grazing. These changes is species composition--including the palatable though generally weedy annual sunflower--constituted overgrazing which by definition is grazing-induced departure from the climax plant community to a seral stage (or, actually, movement of the range vegetation from any higher successional stage to a lower successional state) so as to result in range deterioration or degradation. This change in species composition is retrogression, generally the opposite direction of plant community dynamics from that of plant succession. Overgrazing (an overgrazed vegetational state) is the result of long-tern overuse, forage harvest in excess of sustained yield (= overstocking; harvesting range feed resources beyond grazing capacity of the range). Even though there appeared to still be "planty of feed" with a lot of "high grass" (and made up of tallgrass species) this range was overgrazed. Admittedly departure from climax vegetation was not severe and there was still substantial cover of eastern gamagrass and no apparent soil erosion. Nonetheless grazing management .had not been proper. There was clear departure from the climax vegetation which, in the case of this range site, was the most productive for cattle (feeder calf) production. Eastern gamagrass is much superior to prairie cordgrass in palatability, biomass production, and nutritive value of forage. That is why beef cattle had selectively eaten gamagrass in preference to cordgrass. This pattern was even more pronounced in regards to near-elimination of palatable composite and legume forbs. Associated with slight overgrazing was even more fragrant underburning, inadequate use of prescribed fire. Together these two malpractices (at very least, less-than-ideal management practices) had permitted woody invasion of this grassland by green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), a native tree species kept to minimal cover on virgin tallgrass prairie by frequent range fires. Green ash varied in size from large seedlings to mid-sized saplings in fore- and midground to larger adult trees in background of these photographs. (Size of large seedlings was more apparent relative to the Angus cattle in the next set of three slides.) Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

46. Some of the ice cream species, along with an invading one- A cattle pasture on a bottomland range site of tallgrass prairie co-dominated by prairie cordgrass and eastern gamagrass showing reduction of gamagrass, concomittant increase of cordgrass, and invasion by green ash due to some overgrazing and underburning of this range. In each of these three photographs there were small green ash as tall as the back or shoulders of adult Angus cows. Green ash is a native tree of this range plant community, but in virgin (climax) state green ash is a minor component of the range vegetation, ash being kept as an incidental species by recurrent prairie fires and grazing that permits the two climax decreaser grasses to "keep out" (or, at least, to low cover) what constitutes a woody invader of this grassland. The case could be made that with considerable cover of eastern gamagrass--though more as an associate than co-dominant species--remaining the degree of overgrazing was not critical or, perhaps more accurately, had not yet reached the point that impacted management of this range in a practical way. That argument might well be valid with regard to eastern gamagrass, but such argument fails--fails miserably--with regard to dramatic reduction (indeed almost complete elimination) of climax (decreaser) forbs such as Maximillian sunflower and Illinois bundleflower. Instead a major forb on the cattle range was pale Indian plantain, a good specimen of which was in lower right corner of second slide. Height of eastern gamagrass could be guaged by noting that some of its shoots were as tall or taller than calves and almost as tall as invading young green ash.. Eastern gamagrass on some range sites is an ice cream species, an unusually palatable species consumed first by range animals so that plants of such species are commonly overused and, thus, difficult to maintain even under proper grazing management (Kothmann, 1974). On this tallgrass prairie bottomland range site where eastern gamagrass is the climax co-dominant with prairie cordgrass, eastern gamagrass is not an ice cream species. Rather, on this bottomland range site eastern gamagrass is a key species which is by definition 1) a species which is of such importance that it has to be managed for (ie, maintained on the range) and 2) a feed species the use of which serves as an indicator of degree of use of other range species (Kothmann, 1974). Successional and management status of any range plant species is range site-specific. Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

47. Tallgrass stocker range- Another range of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies--big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, little bluestem--being grazed by about five-weight (500 pound) steers. These landscape-scale views presented the topography as well as physiogonomy and structure of tallgrass prairie at its late vernal aspect in the Osage Questas of the Central Lowlands physiographic province. Other grasses besides the "big four" dominants included prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), Junegrass, Virginia wildrye, and the native annual Agrostis hyemalis, winter bentgrass. Major forbs included Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), catclaw sensitivebriar, wild alfalfa or slender scurfpea (Psoralea tenuiflora), Maxmillian sunflower, annual fleabane (Erigeron annuus), largeflower tickseed (Coreopsis grandiflora), and pale purple coneflower (Echinacea pallida). Shrubs were essentially non-existent as this range was burned almost every spring. The soil was Kenoma silt loam, a fine, smectitic (montmorillonitic) thermic Vertic Argiudoll (Soil Conservation Service, 1990). Range site was Clay Upland. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

48. Grasses, legumes, and composites- Sward of a tallgrass prairie range showing array of species in the three major plant families of this vegetation. This was just outside the fence of the stocker range introduced immediately above. In this photograph of ungrazed range vegetation the following species were found 1) grasses: big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, tall dropseed, Junegrass, Virginia wildrye, winter bentgrass, plus naturalized smooth brome and tall fescue (domestic pasture grasses); 2) legumes: wild alfalfa or slender scurfpea and catclaw sensitivebriar; and 3) composites: Maxmillian sunflower, annual fleabane, and largeflower tickseed. These same species were also inside the fenced pasture though wild alfalfa and Maximillian sunflower had been grazed down considerable so as to be less obvious in the range vegetation. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

49. Grazed and ungrazed- Fenceline contrast between Four Horsemen-dominated tallgrass prairie (big bluestem was the number one dominant) steer range and ungrazed vegetation just across the pasture fence. The exclosure (ungrazed) vegetation was in the foreground (in front of the fence) in the first slide and to the right of the fence in the second slide. This tallgrass prairie was stocked fairly heavily at something like Intensive Early Stocking. This was private range managed commercially so the exact features of Intensive Early Stocking were not followed as would have been the case on an experimental range or even with xtra-conscientious commerical management. Grazing treatment was similar enough for discussion. Big bluestem was the overwhelming dominant and prairie cordgrass and switchgrass were the local associate species on this mesic lower area of a Loamy Upland range site. At least that was the species composition on the ungrazed side of the fencerow. Unfortunately that was not the same situation immediately inside the steer-grazed range where tall fescue had invaded and was in fierce competition with the native grasses. The naturalized Eurasian tall fescue is a cool-season species whereas the native dominants are warm-season panicoid or eragrostoid species. Steer ranges like this one are grazed only during the warm growing season so that much of the early growth of the endophyte-hosting, grazing-tolerant tall fescue has been made prior to cattle grazing. Tall fescue is much less palatable than the native tallgrasses so that under warm-season grazing tall fescue has a decided advantage over big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie cordgrass, and other indigenous species. This author could not find any tall fescue on the outside of the fencerow. Apparently this agronomic pasture grass cannot compete effectively with the tallgrass species except under grazing where there is clearly selective grazing of the native tallgrasses in preference to the endophyte-infected and generally low-palatability tall fescue. Under spring to early summer grazing the invasive tall fescue benefits from heavy grazing, at least during that time period. Conversely, if cattle are shipped early enough in the summer--as under proper administration of Intensive Early Stocking--the native range plants would generally have ample time to recover photosynthetic biomass and restore food reserves in root crown and roots to carry out respiration through their dormant-season. However, tall fescue would be ungrazed (other than by wildlife) during its entire autumn and late winter-early spring periods of regrowth and new growth, respectively. If this prairie owner is not careful he will end up owning just another ordinary pasture of tall fescue and loose a treasured (it should be anyway) tallgrass prairie. The enemy is looming on the prairie horizon. There was an atypically higher density of Baldwin ironweed on this prairie, both inside and outside the fence. There was obviously greater cover and density of ironweed on the steer range, but this conspicuous difference was not a glaring one. This tallgrass prairie range was not in any danger of becoming a weed patch--other than of tall fescue which was the most threatening noxious plant on this rangeland. In essence, most of the difference--at this point in time--in grazed versus ungrazed vegetation was degree of use not species composition. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

50. Growth by late spring- Two "photoquadrants" of ungrazed sward of tallgrass prairie (big bluestem clearly dominant) just outside a fairly heavily grazed stocker range. Details of the exclosure vegetation presented in the two preceding slides. Although big bluestem furnished most of the herbage seen in the first slide there was considerable cover of swithcgrass and prairie cordgrass. There was also some wild alfalfa or slender scurfpea in the first "photoplot". Note in the second slide the already dead shoots of the cool-season Junegrass that had just entered dormancy. The larger, prominently wider leaves behind the Junegrass were those of switchgrass whereas the narrower leaves and generally lower shoots were of big bluestem. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

51. Subtle but real- Fencerow relict vegetation (first photograph) and heavily grazed to overgrazed tallgrass prairie range (second photograph). Range vegetation was straight across a highway from the big bluestem-Indiangrass-switchgrass prairie range described immediately above. The first slide was taken from vantage point of the fencerow looking into a heavily grazed to an overgrazed range stocked with steers during the spring-summer growing period (and over course of many years). Range vegetation on the exclosure (outside the fence on road right-of-way) included eastern gamagrass (the immense clump of giant grass with fully developed inflorescences), big bluestem, switchgrass, and prairie cordgrass. (This range plant community was growing in a transition between lowland and upland range sites.) Also present on the "protected" side of the fencerow was the agronomic (introduced) forage legume, crown vetch (Coronilla varia), which frequently occurs as an adventive or naturalized species. Ohio spiderwort (Tradescantia ohiensis) was also growing to large size on the outside fencerow (right-rear of eastern gamagrass). This member of the dayflower family (Commelinaceae) was not found on the stocker range leading one to suspect that steers had found any spiderworts at least somewhat appentizing or that stocking rate was so high relative to available forage that even unpalatable species were grazed (heavily of course). Vegetation of the steer pasture was completely devoid of eastern gamagrass (it had been grazed out by stockers over the years) and there was as much (or more) tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper) and poverty dropseed (S. vaginiflorus) than big bluestem. Cover of switchgrass and prairie cordgrass was about the same on both sides of the fence, but Virginia wildrye, the dominant cool-season grass, was either missing or grubbed so close to the soil surface that eyes of an experienced prairieman could not find any. The most abundant forb on this heavily stocked range was Baldwin ironweed as compared to Maximillian sunflower immediately outside the range (see the next two photographs). There were also some plants of annual fleabane on the steer range. These differences in range vegetation between heavily grazed (by steers) and ungrazed (by livestock and minimally by wildlife) tallgrass prairie were all signs of overgrazing (= long-term overuse resulting in retrogression of the range plant community). Eastern gamagrass, which would have been a "snap" to find--had it existed--on the stocker range given the huge leaves of this species, is difficult to maintain on ranges because it is often an ice cream species. Ice cream species are those that are readily grazed out on ranges due to their extreme palatability and/or limited tolerance to grazing. Loss of ice cream species from the range is often regarded as "collateral damge", unavoidable demise of a species under realistic grazing management (species not worth the cost, effort, concern, etc.). Ice cream species are analogous to sacrifice areas. Specifically, stocking rates and degrees of use would have to be lighter than those necessary for sustained yield on Good to Excellent condition ranges and those that maximize longterm profit from the forage resource. Eastern gamagrass is clearly an ice cream species on certain range sites and when it is a minor member of the range plant community (low proportions of relative cover, biomass, plant density, etc.) or not a key species. That stated, this rangeman has seen numerous tallgrass prairie cattle ranges in the Flint Hills-Osages Cuestas-Chautauqua Hills Region where large plants of eastern gamagrass were present even after years or decades of cattle grazing. On this part of the stocker range where prairie cordgrass and bottomland switchgrass were major species, eastern gamagrass was most probably a realistic persistent species and not an ice cream species. In fact, it is more likely that eastern gamagrass should be a key species to which degree of use and continuing presence in the range plant community would serve as an indication of proper grazing management. This range was not receiving the respect it should have had. Grassland like this should be cherished as priceless because it is. Incidentially, even the steers were wild in this pasture which is a "dead giveaway" that husbandry is held in low esteem by this steerman and/or landowner. On numerous occasions this photographer has had stocker cattle come right up to the fence to size up him up. They were curious. Wild cattle and degraded ranges are highly correlated. One very good management practice on this range was annual to biennial burning. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

52. Late spring vestment- Details of the sward of upland tallgrass prairie co-dominated by big bluestem and en upland ecotype of switchgrass. The associate species was the cool-season Virginia wildrye. The major forb was Maximillian sunflower (numerous plants were featured prominently in the second photograph). There was also some tall dropseed, wild alfalfa, and annual fleabane in this range vegetation which was just outside the fence of the heavily grazed stocker range described immediately above. This exclosure (outside fencerow) vegetation was representative of the climax vegetation on upland sites just prior to onset of summer and rapid growth/phenological development. This was the vernal society of tallgrass prairie in Excellent range condition class. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Clay Upland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

53. A little lower down on the range- Slightly lower elevation of tallgrass prairie in a transition between upland and lowland range habitats on the Cherokee Prairie. This was a lower-lying portion of the same stocker cattle range introduced above. Grassland presented here was a three-dominant "botanical mix" of big bluestem, switchgrass (bottomland ecotypes), and prairie cordgrass. It was explained above that eastern gamagrass was a likely member of this range plant community, but no plants of that "grand dad grass" were in this local grassland vegetation that had for years been subjected to summer grazing by stockers. The first of these two photographs (both taken with a 28mm lens) showed steers starting to mill on being approached (from a distance of roughly 75-80 yards) while the second photograph caught the steers as they broke from the tight herd, high-tailed, and bolted. "Ghost riders in the sky" swung by to try in eternal futility to catch this "Devil's herd" as was foretold by the famed western song writer Stan Jones. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland, 142.1 biotic community in Cold Temperate Grassland 142 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Loamy Lowland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

54. A little lower (and deeper) yet- Cante-cornered and about 150 yards away from the big bluestem-switchgrass-prairie cordgrass prairie range just presented immediately above there was a prairie slough in an adjacent pasture in which the natural vegetation included 1) wet prairie along an ephemeral stream and 2) marsh in the temporarily flooded backwater area (localized floodplain) of the stream. This slide presented the wet prairie along the stream. It was a consociation of prairie cordgrass with rufous bulrush (Scirpus pendulus) as the associate species. The wet prairie was closer to the channel of the ehemeral stream where surface water and soil water drained away faster than in the backwater habitat that was created by a previously eroded, ox bow depression. On that lower, wetter range environment rufous bulrush predominated and prairie cordgrass assumed associate status. Another zone of wet prairie formed on the outer perimeter of the bulrush-dominated marsh so that this tule wetland was surrounded or situated between two strips of wet prairie. On this outer and somewhat less mesic wet prairie indigobush (Amorpha fruticicosa) was the associate to local co-dominant with prairie cordgrass. The marsh was presented below. The conspicuous white-flowered forb was the composite, Iindian plantain, which was featured earlier in this chapter. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-65 (Northern Cordgrass Prairie). No SRM. Closest unit in Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142., Plains Grassland 142.1 under which there should have been a Cordgrass Series at, say, 142.14.Loamy Lowland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

55. Foundation of wet tallgrass prairie- Profile of the soil in a drainage in tallgrass prairie that formed a slough through which communities of wet praire and marsh had developed in the Cherokee Prairie. This soil was the Verdigris series, fine-silty, mixed, superactive, thermic Cumulic Hapludolls (Soil Conservation Service, 1990). Verdigris soils developed in silty alluvium and are generally very deep yet well drained having formed in landforms of floodplains to local drainage channels such as that shown here. Range site of a Verdigris is Loamy Lowland. This is one of the most productive range sites in this region of tallgrass prairie. Unfortunately, the color of the soil was not accurately captured by the scanner (Epson Perfection 700) even though Kodachrome 64 film got the color perfectly. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June.

56. Slough in tallgrass prairie- Contact of wet prairie and marsh (first slide) and wetland vegetation of a rufous bulrush-dominated marsh (second slide) that developed in a slough along an ephemeral stream channel (wet prairie vegetation) and on a ox bow depression formed outward from (behind) the channel (bulrush or tule marsh). The first view (slide) was at edge of the marsh with the wet prairie behind while the second slide showed the marsh vegetation of rufous bulrush (dominant) and prairie cordgrass (associate). There was also at least one species each of Carex and Cyperus, neither of which was identifiable at their current stages of development. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-42 (Tule Marshes). No SRM. Closest unit in Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) was Plains Interior Marshland 242.3 under which there should have been a Bulrush or Tule Series at, say, 242.33. Loamy Lowland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

57. Thrive on fire and semi-wet feet- Range vegetation of wet prairie on which prairie cordgrass was dominant and indigobush was associate to local co-dominant. This was an outer zone of wet prairie that developed along the margin of a marsh dominated by rufous bulrush with prairie cordgrass as associate species on that wetland. The soil of this wet prairie was slightly better drained than that of the marsh which enabled the shift between rufous bulrush and prairie cordgrass and permitted survival of the shrub, indiobush. Bulrush did best when its roots stayed in mud where it could out-compete prairie cordgrass whereas cordgrass gained the competitive edge on less wet ground where it gained a "woody pardner". All three of these prairie plants do quite well under periodic burning. This range had been fired about two and a half months prior to time of these photographs so that all shoot were of present season's growth. Frequent burning might harm indigobush under certain conditions, but this particular range was burnt about every year (sometimes every other year) and this woody legume was still putting forth vigorous resprouts. Coffey County, Kansas. Mid-June. (late vernal aspect). FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-65 (Northern Cordgrass Prairie). No SRM. Closest unit in Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142., Plains Grassland 142.1 under which there should have been a Cordgrass Series at, say, 142.14. Loamy Lowland range site. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40b (Chapman et al., 2001).

Great Plains form of tallgrass prairie- Except for the sand dunes and sandhills forms of postclimax tallgrass the ultimate expression of North American tallgrass prairie reaches its western limits at the eastern perimeter of the Great Plains physiographic province. Part of this is the Plains Border, including the Smoky Hills (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 25-27).

58. About as far west as it goes- Another treasured prairie hay meadow with big bluestem, upland switchgrass, and tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper) with nodding or Canada wildrye as the major cool-season grass species. This jewel supported such prairie legumes as purple prairie clover (Petalostmon purpureum), Maximillian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani), blackeyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta), leadplant, wild alfalfa, and Illinois bundleflower. As if the "mint condition" condition of this lovely meadow was not enough the clinching feature about this native range vegetation was that it was in the some of the more western margins of tallgrass paririe specifically the Plains Border section of the Great Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1931, ps.25-27). Harvey County, Kansas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Central Great Plains- Wellington-McPerson Lowland Ecoregion, 27d (Chapman et al., 2001).

59. The Missouri Natural Areas Committee recognized 14 "prairie natural communities". These were based on a hypothetical topographic-geologic transect, but this relief alignment was itself based on a hypothetical chresard profile (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80). This was a generic, theoretical soli catena (catena was defined and illustrated in a succeeding photograph and caption). Soil was not the basis of the types or kinds of prairie other than delineation of alluvium and loess and parent material was not a factor except to show depth to limestone or chert, sandstone, or sand. As such these were not the equivalent of range sites. The Soil Conservation Service did not designate range sites in Missouri. In fact, the SCS in Missouri did not even speak to the matter of range or rangeland The next three slides show examples of some kinds of prairies in Missouri and an adjacent county in Kansas based on the Missouri Natural Areas Committee System.

The 14 Missouri prairie communities were: 1) Dry prairie, 2) Dry-mesic prairie, 3) Mesic prairie, 4) Wet-mesic prairie, 5) Wet prairie, 6) Dry limestone/dolomite prairie, 7) Dry-mesic limestone/dolomite prairie, 8) Dry chert prairie, 9) Dry-mesic chert prairie, 10) Dry sandstone/shale prairie, 11) Dry-mesic sandstone/shale prairie, 12) Dry sand prairie, 13) Dry-mesic sand prairie, and 14) Hardpan prairie.

60. Hardpan Prairie- Little bluestem and upland switchgrass dominate this shallow upland range site in the bluestem prairie region. Prairie dropseed is the main associate but Indiangrass and big bluestem are prominent and contribute substantially to cover and biomass. There is a "healthy"array of forbs, mainly composites. The four visibly prominent purple inflorescences are of showy or elegant gayfeather (Liatris elegans). This delightful prairie has been used as a prairie hay meadow for years. Although tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory prairie savanna are the climatic climax for this region the unique species composition of this grassland is edaphic. A claypan overlaying a seam of coal causes a perched water table of acidic groung water and a soil pH of 4.7. This combination favors prairie dropseed, especially, and little bluestem, secondly, rather than the regional dominants of big bluestem and Indiangrass. The shallow but mesic soil and perched watertable explains  upland switchgrass. This form of tallgrass prairie is in the Ozark Plateau or Ozark Highlands physiographic province.

Stoney Point Prairie, Dade County, Missouri. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Hardpan Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

61. The "Sea of Grass" is far from monotonous- A landscape-scale scene of tallgrass prairie the Cherokee Prairie Region (the Cherokee Lowlands section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) may look like sameness or monotony to the "unth degree" to newcomers, but to trained eyes of prairiemen it is anything uniform. The vast interior of continents was the birthplace of the zonal concept. In this context zonal refers or is applied to "features (eg. soils and vegetation) characteristic of a particular region that is approximately bounded by lines of latitude (ie. a region lying parallel to the equator" (Allaby, 1998) This is the usage that was the basis of newer conceptual views of large spatial scale ecology such as ecoregion (= ecosystem region) as applied in Ecosystem Geography (Bailey, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2002). The earliest application of the zonal perspective to soils has been traced to formal usage in soil classification systems by Russian soil scientists especially Dokuchaev (see for eg. Baldwin et al. in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, p. 980; Fanning and Fanning, 1989, ps. 141-149 passim). Zonal was basis of the first effort at a comprehensive soil system in the United States, the organization of which was into zonal, intrazonal, and azonal soils (Soil Classification in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, ps. 979-1001). In the Bailey (1995, 1996, 1998) Ecosystem Geography view the intermediate spatial heirarchial unit is the landscape mosaic, or simply landscape, "a geographical group of site-level ecosystems" in which site is the range site level (Bailey, 1996, ps. 22-25, 169). Some authors recognized the catena unit as another spatial unit in the heirarchy intermediate between landscape and range site. Archer and Smeins in Heitschmidt and Stuth (1991, ps. 110-112) applied catena in this way: "A catena is comprised of linked ecosystems. The landscape is a hierarchial level comprised of catenas". Catena in this scheme is obviously the catena used in Soil Science. The Soil Science Society of American (2001) defined catena distinguised it from toposequence.Catena was defined as "a sequence of soils of about the same age, derived from similar parent material, and occurring under similar commatic conditions, but having different characteristics due to variation in relief and in drainage" while a toposequence was "a sequence of related soils that differ, one from the other, primarily because of topography as a soil-formation factor". Across the portion of landscape mosaic of tallgrass prairie presented above there were probably two or three catenas. There were innumerable hypothetical toposequencial transects that could be measured across the grassland ecosystem (or, depending on spatial scale of study, ecosystems), but this was a catena not a toposequence because drainage regimes were considerably different on the various range sites comprising this landscape. Using the "prairie natural communities" catena sequence of the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80) that were listed above there were three Missouri prairie communities across the tallgrass prairie landscape shown in this photograph: 1) Mesic, 2) Wet-Mesic, and 3) Wet Prairies. Major grasses were the Four Horseman of the Prairies species, prairie dropseed, and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). Composites were by far the major forbs. The most conspicuous at time of photograph was prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), a specimen of which was featured in left foreground. This general geologic region is in the Osage (= Osage Plains) section of the Central Lowland physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 passim), most specifically the Cherokee (or Nevada) Lowlands of the Osage section (Fenneman, 1938, p. 612-613). This region was unglaciated. It is bounded to the southeast by the Ozark Plateaus (= Ozark Uplands) physiographic province and to the west by the Osage Questas section of Central Lowlands. Osage Plains Natural Division (Nelson, 1987, ps. 3 [2-5], 77). Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic Prairie, Wet-Mesic Prairie, and Wet Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

62. Patchwork of tallgrass prairie communities- A vegetational mosaic had developed on this slope of tallgrass prairie in the Cherokee Lowlands physiographic province. Vegetation in foreground (a draw or depression at foot of hill slope) comprised a Wet Prairie community dominated by Carex species with prairie cordgrass and bottomland switchgrass being associates. Background vegetation consisted of two subforms of Wet-Mesic Prairie: a drier subform dominated in roughly equal portions by big bluestem, Indiangrass, and paririe dropseed (left background) and a more mesic subform that was a consociation of prairie cordgrass (right background). This pattern of different tallgrass prairie plant communities at small range site-scale was result of drainage that followed topographic patterns. For those who can truly see (ie. comprehend or understand) and describe vegetation, tallgrass prairie is often extremely varied over relatively small spatial scale. Tallgrass prairie vegetation is far from homogenous. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet Prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1, of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) as was explained and repeated here for reader convenience. Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

63. Consociation amid complexity- A natural single species-stand of prairie cordgrass had developed on a mid-slope above a wet (frequently ponded) depression (see immediately preceding slide). This stand of cordgrass might have been a colony of one genotypic plant rather than a population of several genetic individuals of prairie cordgrass. It was as uniform a crop as any farmer could dream of, but this small "patch" of cordgrass was within (inside of) a larger and diverse range plant community of tallgrass grassland. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet-Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

64. More complexity and species richness in the resources-rich habitat of a tallgrass prairie range- Wet Prairie community (foreground) consisting of several sedge (Carex) and umberella or flat sedge (Cyperus) species was in the foreground of this photograph. The two conspicuous grasslike plant species in the foreground were the umberella sedge, also known as green or marsh flatsedge(Cyperus virens= C. pseudovegetus), smaller plants, and straw-colored flatsedge (C. strigosus), larger and taller plants. The prominent white-flowered forb was common mountain mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum). Mesic-Wet Prairie community was in background. Dominated by prairie cordgrass with big bluestem as associate. The Wet Prairie and Mesic-Wet Prairie communities were distinct and without apparent transition zones between them. Likewise there was no prominent transition between Mesic-Wet Prairie communities and Mesic Prairie communities upslope from them except for increasing predominance of big bluestem and sudden appearance of high cover of Indiangrass. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No.. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

65. Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie- This tallgrass prairie in the regional Cherokee Prairie is in the Cherokee Lowlands subunit of the Central Lowlands. This physiographic unit joins the Ozark Plateau immediately to its east. Two of the Missouri kinds or categories of prairie (“prairie natural communities”) are seen here. Overall, big bluestem is the dominant species but in wet depressions of the Wet-Mesic Prairie form species of Carex and Scirpus dominate. On raised, drier microsites of the Mesic Prairie needle-and-thread is common (visible as a purplish color).  At this early summer season the short-shoot big bluestem has not elongated its culm so the tallgrass physiogonomy is not apparent and the grassland instead resembes a mid-grass or mixed praririe. Switchgrass is present only as an associate on this mesic to hydric water regime because by mid-summer to autumn the soil is typically relatively dry reflecting the precipitation pattern (ie. June is the wettest month of the year and the soil is driest by August or September).  Crawford County, Kansas. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

66. Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie- This tallgrass prairie is in close proximity to the Mesic and Wet-mesic kinds of prairie in the previous slide and is also part of the former magnificant regional Cherokee Prairie which joins (what is left of it) the magnificant Flint Hills physiographic province and its famed bluestem range. This is also a Four Horsemen of the Prairies tallgrass form and big bluestem is also dominant overall, but prairie dropseed, little bluestem, and needle-and-thread can individually or collectively dominate locally. The foreground is the dry-mesic chert form while the background is the dry chert form. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

67. Species-rich tallgrass prairie range community- This Mesic Prairie community in the Cherokee Prairie Region was dominated by the Four Horseman of the Prairies species (big bluestem and Indiangrass were prominent) plus prairie dropseed. Eastern gamagrass was also locally abundant. Most notable on this grassland range community, however, was the remarkable diversity of forbs in combination with dominance of decreaser tallgrass species. Forb species included black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), the conspicuous yellow-flower composite, prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), several goldenrod (Solidago) species, Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), compass plant (Silphium laciniatum), and common horsemint or wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa). And all of these listed grass and forb species in the frame of this one photograph! Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

68. Heartland Garden of Eden: quintessential tallgrass prairie range- Here was tallgrass prairie in its ultimate expression as the climatic climax of its zone. Mesic Prairie community with big bluestem (just reaching anthesis stage; many sexually reproductive shoots still in the boot) the dominant and Indiangrass the associate species. This outstanding example was from a gradual mid-slope upland site in close proximity to the species-rich example shown in the immediately preceding photograph. Both of these "photo-plots" were in the Cherokee Prairie Region. This was in the Cherokee Lowlands portion of the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 [esp. 612-613]). At one time this general area was known for its world-class prairie hay. Several towns and counties in southwest Missouri and southeast kansas are the self-proclaimed "Prairie Hay Caipital of the World". Obviously there is no "one right answer", but the assertion of Minden Mines, Missouri for this coveted title bears special merit. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

69. The healing sward of tallgrass prairie- This view of the sward — the  aboveground portion of the vegetation of marsh, meadow, or grassland; the herbaceous surface of a grassland or other graminoid-dominated community —of tallgrass prairie shows the characteristic combination of cespitose (clumped or tufted ) grasses or bunchgrasses that reproduce asexually (vegetatively) with tillers (vertical or intravaginated shoots) and the sod-forming grasses that reproduced vegetatively with rhizomes and/or stolons (extravaginated or horizonal shoots belowground and aboveground, respectively).  Some grasses such as big bluestem, which is the dominant species here, and Indiangrass and switchgrass, the main associates in this community, have both tillers and extravaginated shoots like rhizomes (in all three of these species). Other grasses are strictly bunchgrasses with shoots limited to tillers like prairie dropseed the third associate seen in this view. Note to beginning students: shoot is the above ground portion of grass and includes culm (grass stem), leaves, and inflorescence. Tiller is not a synonym for shoot except when the shoot is tiller, a vertical intravaginated shoot. Tiller is not the generic for shoot. It is incorrect to speak or write of “tiller dynamics” when shoots being discussed include  stolons (“runners”) or rhizomes. Then it is shoot dynamics. Freshman Agronomy 105. This virgin sod (sod is the combination of roots and the soil they hold or bind; it is the belowground strata of grassland, marsh, or meadow and usually connotes the first few inches of aboveground vegetation) shows the perfect soil- protecting capacity of shoot and root of grass. It also illustrates the erosion-healing feature of grass. Note the “haired-over” old gully in the background. Senator Ingalls of Kansas had it right: “Grass is the forgiveness of nature…” There are various species of forbs in this Excellent range condition sward but as typical for pristine prairie, the great bulk of biomass (weight of living orgamisms or, more precisely, the live weight of organisms) is contributed by the grasses, and often just two up to maybe five or six species (four in the example seen here). This is mid-estival aspect with the grasses in the boot stage (the phenological stage in which the inflorescence is is still enclosed or enveloped by sheath of uppermost leaf). The short- shoot grasses (those which do not elevate their apical meristem until later in the growing season) like big bluestem are just beginning to elongate their culms. July. Based on herbage yield, palatabability and nutritive value of growing forage, resilence (recovery)  from disturbance, soil formation capability, habitat for number of wildlife species, and contributions to Indian and cowboy culture, this is perhaps the greatest natural pasture in North America if not on Earth. God's own cow country; a rangeman's Garden of Eden. Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (the former Chapman-Barnard Ranch) Osage County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

70 The ultimate in heartland grasslands- Tallgrass-true prairie expression of climax grassland in the interior of the humid zone of North America. A local prairie dropseed consociation in a predominately big bluestem-switchgrass mesic tallgrass prairie. Othe major species within this small-scale mosaic of grassland communities (a patchwork of small areas of several contiguous range sites) were porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) and various species of caric sedge (Carex spp.). The interpretation and distinction between true prairie and tallgrass prairie as elaborated by Weaver and Clements (1938, ps. 458-460, 516, 518-521) was described in the chapter, True Prairie, herein. The vegetation of this pristine prairie, one of the jewels of the preserved prairies in Missouri, seemed to be a transition-like expression of grassland vegetation between tallgrass prairie and true prairie range types. However, this "hybrid-like" combination grassland community could not be readily regarded as an ecotone (as ecotonal) or a true transition between the two distinctive types give that they were not conterminous. Rather, there were just scattered consociations of prairie dropseed in a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie. In the context of Landscape Ecology there were patches of prairie dropseed in a matrix of big bluestem. Populations of upland switchgrass on mima mounds (often populating them almost exclusively) could also be regarded as patches in a big bluestem matrix. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. July. Prebloom stage of prairie dropseed; pre-shoot elongation stage of big bluestem. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Soil Survey of Newton County, Missouri (Soil Conservation Service, 1992) did not include range sites ("Go figure"). Soils here were Hoberg-Keeno (silt loams), Gerald (silt loam), and Credon (very cherty loam) associations. Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

71. Another grassland community in the ultimate of heartland grassland- A local range plant community of sloughgrass (= prairie cordgrass) and eastern gamagrass on the overall big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie introduced in the preceding photograph. This component part of tallgrass prairie vegetation was another form of plant community patch, a much more mesic one, in the matrix of the big bluestem-dominated grassland. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. July. Grain-ripe stage of eastern gamagrass; pre-boot stage of sloughgrass (= prairie cordgrass). Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

72. Mima mound topography- Mima mounds are frequently characteristic of the virgin sod of tallgrass and true prairies. These "prairie pimples", "Indian mounds", or "meadow biscuits" have long intrigued prairie hay makers as well as ecologists. Laymen and scientists alike have advanced pet explanations for this unique example of micro-topography. This pattern of microrelief (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993, ps. 69-70) is similar to the gilgai phenomenon, but the cause(s) are not as obvious as in the shrink-swell of gilgai clay soils. Knight (1994, ps. 125-130) discussed these "puzzling landscape features" in the Laramie Basin as to their origin and possible effect on vegetation. While this microrelief has received quite a bit of study (Knight provided numerous citations) findings are still inconclusive though mound vs. intermound vegetation is characteristically different.. That is the situation for this excellent condition prairie hay meadow in the Missouri Ozarks. Switchgrass and prairie cordgrass occupy the mounds while big bluestem and prairie dropseed dominate intermond soil. This is similar to the Clementsian concept of postclimax vegetation on deep sand sites (eg. tallgrass vegetation on sandhills in a semiarid mixed prairie region). Grasses of the mounds are clearly the more mesic species. The maroon flowers are those of tall winecup (Callirhoe digitata) which grows only on the mounds. This illustrates the concept of an indicator plant. Mima mounds are a textbook example of microhabitat or –environment within a range site. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri, July.

73. Freshly mowed mima mound- A mima mound in a meadow recently mowed for prairie hay immediately adjacent to the mound in the immediately preceding photograph. This on-the-mound photograph presented a more detailed view at sward level of this microtopography that is a characteristic feature of tallgrass prairie grasslands in the Ozark Plateau and Cherokee Prairie. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri, July.

74. Tallgrass prairie in Ozark Plateau- Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie with big bluestem and switchgrass co-dominants and prairie dropseed the associate species (Indiangrass and little bluestem were fourth and fitth most abundant species, respectively). Two photographs of broad scale-views showing physiogonomy of range plant community and physiography of land, including microrelief of mima mounds. Range vegetation in first slide included a lot of tall nut-rush or whip nut-rush (Scleria triglomerata) and prairie gayfeather or prairie blazingstar (Liatris pycnostachia). The second slide showed a portion of range vegetation with many more prairie forbs including wingstem or yellow crownbeard (Verbesina helianthoides), finger poppymallow or winecups (Callirhoe digitata), smooth penstemon or foxglove beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis), and rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium).There was also a lot of Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus) in vegetation seen in second photograph along with quite a bit of bolting (rapid development of sexual or flower shoots) in big bluestem. This was a dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987; 2010, ps. 281-284). Range students correctly associate tallgrass prairie with such well-known grassland areas as the Flint Hills or Nebraska Sandhills, but beginning students commonly think only of forests with regared to natural vegetation of the the Ozark Mountains. In actuality much of the native vegetation of the Ozark Plateau is tallgrass prairie and tallgrass-oak/hickory savanna. This short section of Ozark Plateau tallgrass prairie was introduced to overcome that incorrect perception. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

75. Details of an Ozark tallgrass prairie- Structure and botanical composition of a Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie in which prairie dropseed was also a dominant--even first dominant species. The lighter-green, cespitose plants with downward, sprawling leaves (and parted tussock) crown were prairie dropseed. White forbs in first slide were slender or narrowleaf mountain mint (Pycanthemum tenuifolium). Long, dead grass shoots in first slide were those of big bluestem. Plants of the prominent yellow composites in second slide were black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta) and the large-leafed forb in midground were plants of prairie tea (Croton monanthogynus). Also in the second slide were numerous shoots of Junegrass. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

76. Tallgrass prairie distinguished by abundance of prairie dropseed- Details of sward of Four Horsemen plus prairie dropseed on an Ozark prairie. The three most abundant plant species in this virgin tallgrass prairie were big bluestem, switchgrass, and prairie dropseed. Switchgrass was the dominant on mima mounds while big bluestem was the dominant on microsites of mid-mesic conditions and prairie dropseed was the dominant on less mesic microhabitats. The large, cespitose plants with drooping (ascending and then downward facing) leaves in center field of both of these "photoquadrants" were prairie dropseed. Prairie dropseed was the distinctive species throughout much of this grassland being either dominant or associate species over many microenvironments. Weaver and Clements (1938, p. 518) explained that prairie dropseed was one of three characteristic dominants of the true (in contrast to tallgrass) prairie. Presence of prairie dropseed on this obvious tallgrass prairie demonstrated the close botanical affinity and spatial proximity of these two major types or associations of mesic midcontinental grasslands. Other conspicuous plant species in these two slides were slender mountain mint (bright, white inflorescences), black-eyed Susan (yellow composites), and tall or whip nut-sedge (immediate center foreground of second slide). Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

77. A unique one featured- This "photoquadrant" of the sward of a tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau highlighted the annual member of Gentianaceae (gential family) commonly known as rose pink or rose gentian (Sabata angularis). This is one of the few native annual forbs that is found in tallgrass prairie in "mint condition" (ie. as a member of the virgin sward). As with all plant species, this plant was described in standard flora of this region including Stayermark (1963) and McGregor et al. (1986). When in blooom this forb really "sets off" the turf of an already spectacular prairie. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June.

78. Surrounded by woods- Landscape of a tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau of southwest Missouri showing margin of this pristine grassland surrounded by what--except for haying and prescribed burning--was encroaching oak-hickory forest. Interpretation of the natural vegetation of the Ozark Plateau requires careful analysis in context of vegetation development at both geological and successional temporal scales. The vast populace of unenlightened viewers of Ozark vegetation (including otherwise well-educaed foresters) commonly envision the Ozarks as forests of hardwood (primarily oak-hickory) or hardwood-pine, but this is a misconception or, at very least, an only partly true sterotype. In reality much of the tree-dominated natural vegetation of the Ozark Plateau consisted of 1) open forests with understories of tallgrass prairie grasses, especially big bluestem, 2) savannas of oaks and hickories with lush tallgrass (or tallgrass and shrubs) understories, 3) grasslands (primarily tallgrass prairies such as the one shown here), and 4) glades of tallgrass and forb species. Development of oak-hickory or oak-hickory-pine forests with closed canopies and understories largely devoid of herbaceous species and instead comprised primarily woody layer(s) was a vegetational phenomenon attributable largely to fire exclusion by the actions--direact or indirect--of white man (eg. farming;, roadbuilding; overgrazing; and planned, Smoky bear fire exclusion). This afforestation (establishment [in this case by human action] of a forest on land where the preceding vegetation was not forest [Helms, 1998]) of the Ozark Plateau was well-documented and plainly described by numerous workers. Readers were referred to the classic works of Steyermark (1940, 1959) along with some of the other studeis described above. Similarily, much of Missouri as well as adjoining portions of Illinois and Iowa were almost exclusively grasslands of true and tallgrass types (Steyermark, 1963, ps, xxii-xxiv). Tallgrass prairie like this one in the western border of the Springfield Plateau section of the Ozark Plateau was typical in physiogonomy, species composition, structure, and function to those of the general and vast Prairie Region. Diamond Grove Prairie featured in this section had been kept free of woody invaders for decades through haying (harvest for prairie hay) long before it was purchased in 1972 through generosity of Miss Katherine Ordway and incorporated into the outstanding system of prairies administered by one agency or another of the Show Me State of Missouri. (A photograph of part of the recently hayed Diamond Grove Prairie was presented above.) Beginning several years before time of this and subsequent photographs haying operations ceased on Diamond Grove. Invasion of the former Diamond Grove hay meadow by native woody species bcame obvious within two or three years after mowing for prairie hay. Prescripton burning of Diamond Grove Prairie was initiated by Missouri Department of Conservation when it became obvious that maintenance of this virgin grassland was best--at least, most naturally--achieved by proper use prescribed fire. Forested land seen on the margin of Diamond Grove Prairie (distant background of both slides) was private property that had been overgrazed by cattle for decades and, most likely, farmed prior to that. The virgin grassland of Diamond Grove Prairie had been preserved only because it had been set aside by various landowners for production of prairie hay. Once mowing for hay production was curtained Missouri Department of Conservation invasion of the tallgrass prairie by native species of woody plants began. The agency was forced to use prescribed burning or, alternatively, watch the virgin prairie become an unnatural forest as a result of the artificial exclusion of prairie fires. Fortunately, the agency spurned Smokey Bear and wisely applied proper prairie use through prescription burning. Native vegetation presented in these two photographs consisted primarily of five grass species: big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie dropseed, Indiangrass, and little bluestem (in that relative, general order). Switchgrass was the dominant species on mima mounds such as the one featured in the second of these two slides. Major forbs included slender mountain mint, smooth or foxglove beardtongue, prairie blazingstar or prairie gayfeather, leadplant, and black-eyed susan. Woody (= invader) species persent as seedlings to small saplings included blackjack oak (Quercus marlandica), post oak (Q. stellata), blackberry or briar (Rubus spp.), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). These woody invaders were "kept at bay" only through prescribed burning (see immediately below). Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

79. Woody invaders of an Ozark tallgrass prairie- Within three months of prescribed burning there were resprouts of blackjack oak (first photograph) and post oak (second photograph) in tallgrass prairie vegetation of Diamond Grove Prairie. Also visible in the second photograph were plants of persimmon and wild plum (Prunus sp.) Once hay-making operations were curtailed (several years prior to time of photographs), and in combination with minimal (only incidental) grazing by white-tailed deer and smaller herbivores, invasion of the virgin tallgrass sod by woody plant species began. Adjacent oak-hickory forest on the perimeter of Diamond Grove Prairie (contiguous or conterminous forest vegetation) as well as the soil seed bank served as sources of propagules or disseminules for this woody invasion. Plants of the two oak species, persimmon, and wild plum had established one or two years prior to this year's (current spring) prescribed burn. Once established, most of such woody plants can be kept at immature stages of development only through recurrent prairie fires. Black-eyed Susan and slender mountain mint were the conspisuous forbs in the first slide. Junegrass was noticable in the second slide. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

80. Haymaker's mark- A foolproof sigh that a prairie is being (or has, in the past, been) used as a hay meadow is presence of patches of woody vegetation scattered within the grassland plant community. It is true that annual mowing for hay insures that there are no aboveground parts (shoots) of woody plants older than one year in mowed areas; however, mowing machine operators give a proverbial "wide berth" to any woody material large enough to damage their equipment (eg. break sections in sicklebar mowers, dull blades of disk mowers). Leaving unmowed parts of hay meadows results in patches or strips of shrubs, tree sprouts, etc. The result is ever-expanding patches of brush. In fact, year after year these areas of woody plants increase exponentially as their avoided perimeters with woody plants too large to be mowed encroach outward into herbaceous vegetation in roughly circular patterns. The geometric boundaries of brush patches that grow outward each year extend at exponential rates of invasion. This is a ripple-like or wave-resembling encroachment of brush into what was previously grassland. Over time successively greater areas of prairie are invaded to eventually become woodland or forest. The only mechanical form for control of brush (reduction in aboveground cover of noxious woody plants) in prairies, such as those used for hay meadows, is cutting or digging by hand or, more realistically, shredding (breaking or twisting off of shoots by rotary brush cutters). Over large areas such mechanical control is expensive and not always cost-effective. Broadcast chemical control such as aerial application of herbicide is out of the question because herbicides that kill woody docots will also kill desirable forbs such as native legumes and palatable composites. Chemical control will not permit preservation of the natural vegetation. Fire is the only viable alternative in such instances. That is why the Missouri Department of Conservation was compelled--eventually--to use prescribed burning to maintain Diamond Grove Prairie. This Ozark Plateau prairie needed more flames a lot sooner, but "better late than never". At this late point in time (stage of brush invasion) some of the trees in Diamond Grove Prairie were already too large to be topkilled (and root kill was already at the point of being "highly unlikely") by prescription burning. The only feasible approach for brush control at this stage of woody invasion (as indicated by size of established trees) was either spot application of herbicides or physical removal of trees with equipment like bulldozer, grubber, or track hoe. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure". The commendable use of prescribed fire was already "too little too late". The first slide of this set presented an overall view of a patch of burnt brush that included blackjack oak, black oak (Quercus velutina), post oak, sassafras, persimmon, smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), and wild plum (Prunus sp.) in that approximate order of abundance and cover. The second slide was a close-up view of fire effects in this brush patch. Smooth sumac presented a special situation of brush control because the various Rhus species greatly and rapidly increase in cover and density (much like big bluestem) under late winter or spring burning. Expansion of smooth sumac into previously sumac-free grassland as a direct response to the three-month earlier prescribed fire was obvious in the second slide. Rhus species are some of the most fire-adapted--in fact, fire-dependent--of all prairie shrubs. This lesson was showed in greater detail in the next slide-caption set. The largest and second largest trees in middle of this brush patch were black oak, one of the most widespread dominants of oak-hickory forests throughout the western (Springfield) portion of the Ozark Plateau. This aggregation of woody plants was already becoming the "nucleus" of an Ozark forest. The climax vegetation of the Ozark Region was a mosaic of oak-hickory forests; grasslands (mostly tallgrass prairies and isolated glades over shallower, rockier soils); and savannahs of oak and hickory trees, scattered shrubs, and understories dominated by tallgrass species. Recurrent fire was a major "landscape architect" responsible for this patchwork of native plant communities. (This phenomenon was described in greater depth in the next photocaption.) Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

81. Too much fuel; too little fire- Two successively closer views of the brush patch introduced immediately above that developed on a tallgrass prairie hay meadow in the Springfield (western Ozark) Plateau. This woody vegetation developed due to a combination of fire cessation (fire suppression) and lack of mowing. Hay mowers avoided groups of shrubs and small trees resulting in patches of woody vegetation that invaded the virgin grassland at expontential rates (ie. rates of woody invasion increased at annually increasing geometric rates). Woody species were primarily blackjack oak, black oak, post oak, sassafras, persimmon, smooth sumac, and wild plum (in roughly that order of relative cover). The largest plants, including the conspicuous tallest plant, in these two slides was blackjack oak. This patch of woody plants was already on its way to becoming an oak-dominated forest! The brush patch presented in these two and the two preceding slides had been treated with prescribed fire about three months prior to time of photographs. Obviously many iof the woody plants were not even topkilled and apparently none of these brush plants had been rootkilled. Instead prescribed burning resulted in proliferation of the highly fire-adapted smooth sumac (preceding two slides) and profuse sprouting from rootcrowns and rootstocks (woody rhizomes) of sassafras. Resprouting of sassafras was featured in foreground of the two photographs. Repeated burning (on, say, a recurrent cycle of one to every three years) would likely reduce (eventually rootkill) many of these woody plants, but they were certainly well-established by the time the Missouri Department of Conservation belatedly employed prescribed fire, an indespensible tool for maintenance of such climax grasslands in this humid zone. In absence of fire--a natural outcome of a continental climate with profuse lightening strikes--climax tallgrass prairie would develop into postclimax oak-hickory forest or, at very least, become a degraded grassland invaded by woody species that are less fire-tolerant than climax herbaceous species. Under humid continental climate, tallgrass prairie is more likely a pyric climax (= a fire type) than a climatic climax. This is, however, a play on words used to designate (and emphasize) a so-called fire climax. Properly (or more accurately) stated , the fire component (outcome) of climate determines the prevailing potential natural vegetation. Fire is merely the resultant phenomenon of humid precipitation that produces abundant, readily flamable fuel which is easily ignited by prolific strikes of lightening and rapidly spread by usually amble wind speed. Recurrent fire is the culminating feature of climate that is largely responsible for prevention of establishment (or elimination and drastic reductions) of plant species that have aboveground perennating parts. Herbaceous plants which have almost no perennial organs aboveground are favored over woody plant species under recurrent fire, a final feature or facet of climate. Fire-conducive climates (regions having frequent natural fire as part of their prevailing climate) have herbaceous rather than woody plant communities as the climax vegetation. Hence, the term of fire climax to lay stress upon the final climatic feature responsible for climax grasslands. This is more the case when fire burns herbaceous plants during dormancy. Even when fire burns herbaceous plants during growing their growing season these species with their annual aboveground organs are less severely damaged than woody plants that have years of accumulated aboveground growth. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. Late June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Dry-mesic chert prairie (Nelson, 1987). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40).Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

82. The glory of tallgrass prairie in the spring- A treasured tallgrass hay meadow dominated by big bluestem with Indiangrass as the associate species as seen in vernal aspect. The conspicuous prairie forb was American cowslip or shooting star (Dodecatheon meadia). "[E]ven Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed as one of thes" (Matthew 6:29; Luke 12:27) -- and we've got a whole meadow full. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April. Peak bloom in cowslip. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

83. Prairie Cordgrass (Spartina pectinata)-dominated community of tallgrass prairie- Clay bottomland range site. Note wild indigo (Amorpha fruticosa).Anderson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). Bottomland variant of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2001).

84. Prairie cordgrass or sloughgrass (Spartina pectinata) growing conspicuously in a slough on tallgrass prairie- This species and the local low spot appeared quite pronounced in a dry year. Spartina was derived from the Greek, spartinae, meaning "cords" probably in reference to the tough leaves (Hitchcock and Chase, 1951, p. 508), but many know this particular species more by its major habitat of small damp draws called sloughs. Ecologists like John Weaver (1954, ps. 31-33) more commonly called this most water-requiring of all the major tallgrass species sloughgrass or tall marshgrass. Weaver (1954, p. 33) noted that sloughgrass was "the last stage in the succession from wet land or water to climax prairie" and that it formerly formed essentially single species-stands (consociation in the Clements-Weaver unit of climax vegetation) over hundreds of square miles of bottomland along watercourses such as the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Almost all of this riparian range (and that of the draws on upland prairies like the one shown here) was drained, plowed, and planted to row crops, especially corn. This relict stand is preserved on the Missouri Prairie State Park in Barton County, Missouri (formerly one of the leading prairie hay producing areas). Late estival aspect, September. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie, but as a subunit within tallgrass prairie that did not occur at the mapping scale used by Kucher). The SRM rangeland cover type designated Cordgrass (SRM 726) listed nine variants, but these were all for the Gulf Coast prairies and marshes. S. pectinata was not included in SRM 726. It might seem that the prairie cordgrass community would logically be included as part of the Bluestem Prairie designation (SRM 710), but this species, which forms an obviously distinct climax unit (a consociation), was quite properly not listed thereunder (it is it's own unique rangeland cover type). The SRM (Shiflet, 1994) just misssed it, plain and simple. This is somewhat surprising given the profound impact of Weaver and the University of Nebraska network on generations of rangemen. There should be a Prairie Cordgrass rangeland cover type with a specific and single SRM number and description. Given that the Society (Shiflet, 1994) designated Cordgrass and Sea Oats cover types within the Gulf Coast tallgrass prairie, a Prairie Cordgrass designation and description should be added (if for no other reason than consistenty of presentation). As with the current collection of slides, description of range cover types is an unfinished project. Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

85. Prairie cordgrass community- This was an example of the Spartina pectinata consociation that once made up thousands of acres of virgin wet or mesic prairie at the edge of marshes in the Central Lowlands region. It was probably the most productive of all the actual prairie communities with the possible exception of some parts of the bottomland switchgrass-Canada wildrye-eastern gamagrass community (Weaver, 1954, ps. 35-36). Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). A subunit of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie).SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), or more generally, SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

86. Inforescence of prairie cordgrass- Even the flower cluster of this productive prairie grass is big, rank, and tough. Weaver (1954, p. 33) explained that both Indians and white pioneers used this species as thatch for lodges, cabins, and even corn cribs. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July.

87. Prairie cordgrass- Flowering stalks of prairie cordgrass (famed Chimney Rock, before latest loss of spire height, in background). Organization note: further treatment of prairie cordgrass was given below under the section of tallgrass prairie grasses. Morrill County, Nebraska. July.

88. Tallgrass prairie in its full glory (peak standing crop; maximum morphological development of tallgrasses at anthesis and fruit set)- This scene shows where "tallgrass" gets it's name. A Loamy Bottomland range site in the Smokey Hills physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands in central Kansas dominated by bottomland switchgrass with big bluestem and Indiangrass as associates. Grasses exceed 8 feet in height on this fertile, high water-holding capacity soil. Drier range sites in this area are mixed prairie so tallgrass prairie is postclimax on the alluvial lowland site. The gallery forest growing along a creek in the background is dominated by eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) with bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) as the major associate.

The Smokey Hills is the geologic-physiogrphic unit immediately west of the Flint Hills which in turn is immediately west of the Osage Questas physiographic unit. Tallgrass prairie is the regional or climatic climax of the latter two and the eastern portion of the Smokely Hills. Geologic ages ago this region was covered by a sea. When the Indians had it to themselves it was a sea of grass. Tallgrass prairie such as this is, among the herbaceous (not bamboo) grasslands, to the rangeman and grassland ecologist what the redwood forest is to the forester and forest ecologist.This is the ultimate expression of the grassland formation. Lincoln County, Kansas. Late estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 or 601 both designated as Bluestem Prairie), both the Northern and Southern Great Plains regions in Shiflet (1994) claimed the tallgrass prairies of Kansas (and any fool can see why!). Central Great Plains- Smoky Hills Ecoregion, 27a (Chapman et al., 2001).

89. Autumnal aspect of tallgrass prairie as God and the redman knew it—Upland site dominated by Indiangrass; typical Four Horsemen with willow (Salix sp.), smooth and skunkbush sumac (Rhus glabra, R. trilobata = R. odorata) in draws. Smoky Hills, Maxwell Game Preserve, McPherson County, Kansas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Great Plains- Smoky Hills Ecoregion, 27a (Chapman et al., 2001).

90. Another shot of fall aspect of Four Horsemen dominated-tallgrass prairie to show meaning of “tallgrass” relative to a two-year-old Longhorn bull.Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, Commanche County, Oklahoma.October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant. Central Great Plains- Wichita Mountains Ecoregion, 27k (Woods et al., 2005).

91. Grand Prairie sampler- Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas in dead of winter. Climax range vegetation presented here was a nearly single-species stand (a consociation if there ever was one) of little bluestem with the major associate species meadow dropseed (Sporobolus asper var. drummondii). Other species, including Indiangrass and Texas wintergrass, were incidential and, basically, non-existent. Range condition class was obviously Excellent. Green trees were mottes of live oaks (Quercus virginiana var. fusiformis= Q. fusiformis) that had their own unique understorey. This layer(s) of the live oak mottes included cool-season grassses, the dominant species of which were Texas wintergrass and Canada wildrye, warm-season grasses (mostly little bluestem, big bluestem, Indiangrass, and vine mesquite), careic sedges, and shrubs the major one of which was spring herald or elbow-bush (Forestiera pubescens). The Texas live oak motte range type was treated separately in this publication under the heading, Eastern or Southern Live Oak, in Miscellaneous Forest Types under Woodland and Forest Types. By convention, convenience, and (probably most importantly) practical necessity the various prairies of northcentral Texas havebeen included (lumped in) with the Cross Timbers (see for eg. Diggs et a. 1999, ps. 42-54). Geology and soils of these two natural resource and vegetational units are drastically different with Cross Timbers developing sandy, generally deep soils whereas Grand Prairie soils are underlaid with limestone (often in the form of caliche) and are typically shallower than their sandy land savannah counterparts. In Texas' Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational (land resource) area, live oak almost always grows only on calcareous (limey) soils so that these evergreen hardwoods are reliable plant indictors of Grand Prairie soils and vegetation. Across the United States there have been several so-called Grand Prairies including another famous one in Illinois and a small one in Missouri. In Texas in a literal sense (strictly speaking and again by convention) the Grand Prairie as a natural unit of land and vegetation includes the Forth Worth Prairie and Lampasas Cut Plain (Diggs et al., 1999, 48-54). Natural range vegetation of the Grand Prairie, especially of the Forth Worth Prairie portion, is similar to that of the Texas Blackland (=Waxy or Waxyland) Prairie being the "standard" North American tallgrass bluestem prairie but with Texas wintergrass as a cool-season dominant and with considerably more diversity of forbs and woody plants. Kuchler (1964, 1966) maped both the Forth Worth and Blackland Prairies as the same unit, Blackland Prairie (Andropogon-Stipa). The definitive description of the Fort Worth Prairie portion of the Grand Prairie vegetational unit remains the classic monograph of Dykserthuis (1946). Erath County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Limestone Cut Plain Ecoregion, 29e (Griffith et al., 2004).

92. Grand Prairie form of tallgrass prairie- The greater Grand Prairie ecosystem, biotic community, etc. historically has been regarded as having the Fort Worth Prairie as one of its ecological units (or subunits) located north of the Brazos River (Dyksterhuis, 1946, fig.1). Most of the Fort Worth Prairie that Dyksterhuis (1946) described has been gobbled up by urban sprawl (including exurban subdivisions). Devout, die-hard conservationists continue to bravely fight a last-stand, battle-to-the-knife siege to save the last remnants of this once magnificant grassland. Although just to the south of the orginally delineated Fort Worth Prairie (Dyksterhuis, 1946, fig.1), this example of little bluestem-Indiangrass tallgrass prairie presented in these three landscape shots provided students with an example of tallgrass prairie in northcentral Texas that is distinct from tallgrass prairies of Blackland Prairie and Lampasas Cut Plain biotic/ecosystem units. In the hotter climate of this more southern subhumid zone with its generally drier soil profile, Indiangrass replaces big bluestem as the "first-among-equals" dominant on more favorable microsites while little bluestem occupies or performs this role on more typical ("average") environments throughout most of the Southern Tallgrasss Prairie Region. This is distinct from the Northern Tallgrass Prairie Region of Kansas, northern Oklahoma, and Missouri. where big bluestem is king among the Four Horsemen tallgrasses on a zonal (region- wide) scale and on upland mesophytic range sites and where there is more physical (spatial) separation among all four dominant tallgrasses. Little bluestem was the clear dominant in the first and third of these three photographs with Indiangrass the second most abundant tallgrass and the associate species overall. In the second slide Indiangrass was the dominant tallgrass, but western ragweed had greater foliar cover in some local spots (microsites) as for instance in left foreground. This "species mix" illustrated the frequently found condition in which climax dominants (decreasers) grow immediately adjacent to invaders. This spatial relationship sometimes exist even on virgin range vegetation as on this Excellent condition classs range. There is usually some biologically rational explaination for this seemingly contractionalry ecological state of affairs. The direct explanation in the case of western ragweed beside Indiangrass was that this was a more moist microhabitt (hence Indiangrasss outcompeted the otherwise dominant little bluestem) and buffalo had "played" in the mud creating such a zootic disturbance that Indiangrass was mostly killed out by the pawing, gouging, wallowing, etc. and western ragweed migrated in and achieved dominance on the "new land" created by the disturbance. The third photograph featured a local patch of an autumnal society of forbs the main species of which were the composites old-field or gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis var. longipetiolata), plains blackfoot (Melampodium leucanthum), and narrowleaf gayfeather (Liatris mucronata). This local society was presented in the next photograph. All trees in these three "photoquadrants" were canyon live oak (Quescus virginiana var fusiformis= Q. fusiformis) which on Grand Prairie are restricted to calcareous (having some form of calcium such as calcium carbonate, like caliche, or lime) soils. Somervell County, Texas. Mid-October; late estival aspect, peak standing crop just before onset of winter dormancy.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

93. Late season gathering- Autumnal society of forbs on a little bluestem-Indiangrass climax range type in the Grand Prairie Area of northcentral Texas. The major forbs were members of the Tubuliflorae subfamily of Compositae: plains blackfoot, old-field or grey goldenrod, and littleleaf gayfeather. This local (locally restricted or small) community was shown in relation to surrounding range vegetation in the immediately preceding photograph. Society is the term and concept coined by Clements (1916; ps. 130-134). This is an example of an aspect society, one determined basically by seasonality (eg. autumnal aspect thus autumnal society in the example shown here). Later, Clements (1935, p. 276) proposed the term of sociation for a climax aspect society and socies for a seral aspect society. It is easy to see how F.E. Clements "turned off" some ecologists (maybe most who were not Clements' disciples) with his extreme verbage and coinage of terms. Notwithstanding, the idea of plant society is still a useful one--as long as the baggage of terminology does not weight it down. In the more recent conceptual view of Landscape Ecology the local community (microcommunity) of forbs can be seen as a small patch within the matrix of the surrounding tallgrass (little bluestem-Indiangrass) community (macrocommunity). Clements did not have a monopy on ecological vocabulary. Somervell County, Texas. Mid-October; late estival aspect, peak standing crop just before onset of winter dormancy.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

94. Range vegetation along a tallgrass prairie stream- A small, semi-permanent (dry only in drought) stream of brook-size on the tallgrass prairie range shown in the preceding three-slide set was bais of two ecosystems: 1) wet prairie and 2) woody riparian, both of notable composition and structure. On the riparian and adjacent moist prairie zones taken together a savanna had developed made up of mesic tallgrass species with pecan (Carya illinoinensis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), and American elm (U. americana)--in that order except that American elm was more abundant deeper in interior of the woody riparian woodland--dominating the woody layers and completing the savanna physiogonomy. In addition to the tree component, the woody plant phase also included a well-developed shrub layer comprised of possum-haw holly (Ilex decidua), elbow-bush (Forestiera pubescens), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common greenbriar (Smilax bona-nox), and chittamwood (Bumelia langulosa var. oblongifolia). Post, rock or blueberry cedar or juniper (Juniperus asheii) had started to invade, an inevitable on-going process in absence of prairie fire. The wet prairie extended from an herbaceous riparian zone that was devoid of a woody component and extended outward to the little bluestem-Indiangrass tallgrass prairie that was covered immediately above. Species composition of this wet prairie was dominated by bottomland switchgrass with Indiangrass and little bluestem as associates along with the following other grasses (in this approximate order): bushy bluestem (Andropogon glomeratus),. sideoats grama, two dropseeds (S. clandestinus, purpleflower dropseed, primarily; Sporobolus vaginflorus, poverty dropseed, secondarily), Canada wildrye, seep muhly (Muhlenbergia reverchonii), broadleaf woodoats (Uniola latifolia), purpletop (Tridens flavus), King Ranch bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum), and Johnsongrass (Sorghum halapense). This was a pristine stand of wet prairie and the two exotic grasses (latter two species) were not competitive with the native tall- and mid-grasses. Main forbs were Illinois bundleflower, frostweed or white crownbeard (Verbesina virginica), curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa), and blue boneset (Eupatorium coelestinum). The two important shrubs were buttonbush and indigobush (Amorpha fruticosa). An unidenifiable (no flowers or fruit present) species of spikerush (Eleocharis sp.) was the sole vascular plant actually growing in the stream (bottom of stream channel). Pecan, sugarberry, and cedar elm were the three tree species tht grew in the wet prairie. They were also the only trees that grew beyond the riparian (stream bank) zone. Most of he riparian zone was more of a woodland plant community with an herbaceous layer of grasses and forbs along with a tree and shrub layer. This riparian vegetation was treated in the slide and caption immediately following this treatment. Somervell County, Texas. Mid-October; late estival aspect, peak standing crop just before onset of winter dormancy.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), Local mesic savanna vriant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Wet prairie or riparian variant of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

95. Nice place for a prairie picnic- Interior of a bottomland forest or woodland that developed on the riparian zone of a brook-sized, semi-permanent (dry in drought) stream flowing through a little bluestem-Indiangrass tallgrass prairie in the Grand prairie Region of northcentral Texas. This range vegetation had developed downstream from the grassland-savanna vegetation presented in the preceding three-slide set (to immediate left of scenes shown in these three preceding photographs). The large tree (foreground) was an old, fire-scarred pecan. The tree in background was a cedar elm. Major herbaceous species included Canada wildrye, purpletop, little bluestem, broadleaf woodoats, and Texas wintergrass. The most abundant forb was frostweed or white crownbeard. The major shrub was possomhaw holly; other shrubs included elbow-bush, buttonbush, and invading (due to fire-cessation) blueberry, post, or Ashe juniper. Note on organization and location: a climax, mixed hardwood (sugarberry-cedar elm-pecan) forest with an understorey dominated by Canada wildrye and broadleaf woodoats that developed on the Brazos River floodplain was presented under Forests and Woodlands in the chapter entitled Miscellaneous Forests. This narrow band of bottomland forest that developed along the stream was a corridor (one of the three major elements in Landscape Ecology) within a matrix (a second major element in the Landscape Ecology conceptual view) of tallgrass prairie. This forest range cover type was included at this point in treatment of tallgrass prairie to show the connectedness of native plant communities, help students grasp the continuity of natural vegetationn, and provide a more complete veiw of range vegetation within the Tallgrass Prairie Region. Somervell County, Texas. Mid-October; late estival aspect, peak standing crop just before onset of winter dormancy.FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest and Woodland Ecosystem). K-92 (Elm-Ash Forest). SAF 93 (Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash) and/or SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm). Absence of sycamore and sweetgum and presence of sugarberry suggested that SAF 93 was more appropraite; however, the former cover type designation for SAF 94 included pecan so choice was unclear.Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest 223.1, Mixed Hardwood Series, 223.13 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 43). Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

120871 and 120872.

Two on Texas tallgrass prairie- A Grand Prairie tallgrass prairie range dominated by--in fact, a consociation of--Indiangrass and behind it a mixed hardwood bottomland forest of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides subsp.deltoides) and cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), co-dominants, with common or saw greenbriar (Smilax bona-nox) as the associate that had developed along a small stream. The associate (actually, more like the most abundant minor) grass species of the tallgrass prairie was purpletop which had greatest cover at edge of grassland and forest. The most common prairie forb was tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima). There were a few stray plants of King Ranch bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum= Bothriochloa ischaemum var. songarica), a dreadful weed on the virgin sod of this climax vegetation. Other abundant species of the cottonwood-cedar elm-greenbriar forest included trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), poison oak/poison ivy (Rhus radicans= R. toxicodendron= Toxicodendron radicans), and giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida). There were some small trees of sugarberry (Celtis leavagada), but these were not enough to include in descriptive name of the existing forest. Work by Rosiere et al. (2013) showed that sugarberry is the first dominant tree species in some mixed hardwood forests that develop along larger streams in northcentral Texas. Such was not the situation here; nor was pecan (Carya illinoinensis) present in sny detectable portion along the gallery forest of this prairie stream. Hamilton County, Texas. Mid-October; late estival aspect, peak standing crop immediate post-anthesis in indiangrass.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), Local mesic savanna vriant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Wet prairie or riparian variant of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

96. Tallgrass prairie of Lampasas Cut Plain- Dominance of this plant community by tallgrass species of little bluestem and meadow dropseed qualified this range plant community as an example of interior tallgrass prairie, but strictly speaking this vegetation is part of the Edwards Plateau due to its physiographic affinity with the Great Plains. It was interpreted as part of the Great Plains physiographic province by Fenneman (1931, pgs. 54-59, esp. 55; 1938, ps. 102, 106). Thus this range vegetation was discussed in more detail in the Grassland chapter, entitled Edwards Plateau. This example of prairie was included at this point in interior tallgrass parairie to provide consistency as to physiography, avoid confusion, and provide as much comprehensive coverage within each chapter as was possible. Lampasas County, Texas. October. Autumnal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K- Juniper-Oak Savanna. Texas. Variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Cross Timbers- Limestone Cut Plain Ecoregion 29e (Griffith et al., 2004).

11562 and 11563. 11564 and 11565. 11566 and 11567.

97. True prairie or tallgrass prairie (you choose)- In the eastern edge of the Southern High Plains immediately adjacent to the Smoky Hills province the range vegetation presented here had developed as a plant community consistenting almost exclusively of tall or meadow dropseed (Sporobolus asper var. asper= S. compositus). Very few other species were present although big bluestem made a respectible showing locally (ie. a local associate species). Local areas of heavy spot grazing (localized overgrazed patches) were populated primarily by buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides). Otherwise, this range vegetation was almost or essentially a population of tall dropseed. Aspect was a northeast-oriented slope, but so gentle as to constitute minor impact of orientation to sun. Successional and classification status of this range vegetation was unknown. This author did not know if this was a degraded raange on which the potential natural (climax) plant community was typical tallgrass prairie that was most llikely dominated by big bluestem (given that this species was the associate species on locally rstricted small areas [perhaps microhabitats]) or, alternatively, if this was true prairie on which tall dropseed was the climax dominant, even sole dominant such that was a tall dropseed consociation (a tall dropseed climax). Personally, the author opted for the latter, interpreting this as an example of true prairie the potential natural vegetation of which was a consociation of S. asper var. asper. This admittedly arbitrary conclusion was based on the classic literature in the early days of American plant ecological studies. Weaver and Clements (1938, p. 318) specified that "Stipa spartea, Sporobolus asper, and S. heterolepis are the three most characteristic dominants" of the true prairie because these three species do not exist as dominants in other grassland associations. These same dominants were reported in Clements and Shelford (1939, ps. 270, 272). Tall dropseed had earlier been designated as a dominant of true prairie by Clements (1936, ps. 271, 273). Certainly, tall dropseed does occur in tallgrass prairie and mixed prairie types. It is the occurrence of tall dropseed as a dominant of true prairie that is the feature that defined the grassland shown here as being true--not tallgrass--prairie. Presence of this range vegetation in the semiarid zone and not on mesic or postclimax habitat as, in the case of tallgrass prairie in the Nebraska Sandhills, was another convinching (to this author anyway) factor in the conclusion that this was true prairie of the climax tall dropseed form. It was observed that there were a few isolated--though small or stunted--plants of smooth brome. It was not clear how to nterpret presence of this agronomic grass in this semiarid environment. A final fact that justified this as true prairie was its proximity within a few miles of little bluestem-dominated true prairie. (This latter true prairie plant community was presented in the chapter, True Prairie within the Grassland section of Range Types of North America.) This example of what the author interpreted as climax true prairie was included in the chapter on the more mesic and easterly tallgrass prairie to show 1) the continuity and transition of these two closely related grassland range types and 2) that classification of vegetation depends on interpretation which in turn is dependent on personal observations, experience, and, finally, biases (in turn a function of academic and experiencial factors). Phillips County, Kansas. Late June-early estival aspect. Given published classifications this range vegetation would have the following designations FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, probably more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Central Great Plains- Rolling Plains and Breaks Ecoregion 27b (Chapman et al., 2001).

Texas Blackland Prairie

98. Tallgrass form in Blackland Prairie of Texas-Less than 1/10 of 1% of original "Waxy Land" Prairie remains. Here in Tridens Prairie (Lamar County, Texas) is a rare upland site dominated by eastern gammagrass or, to locals, corngrass (Tripsacum dactyloides) and switchgrass. Also present arebluestems, tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper), longspike tridens (Tridensstrictus), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum) as well as forbs like rattlesnake master or snake-root eryngo (Eryngium yuccifolium) and giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima ). Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie). SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

99. Texas Blackland Prairie- The blackland or waxy land prairie has all but vanished. Less than 0.1 % of the original blackland prairie remains. The rest fell before the plow and other forms of intensive agriculture and commerce. This is a rare remnant of what was once a distinct form of tallgrass prairie. The grassland community seen here is on a hog wallow (gilgai) microrelief prairie formed by a Vertisol of montmorillonite clay that has high water-holding capacity. This edaphic habitat is dominated by eastern gamagrass, switchgrass and tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper). The conspicuous forb is yuccaleaf ernygo (Eryngium yuccifolium) but there are many other species of forbs, especially composites like giant coneflower (Rudbekia maxima), ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis), and three goldenrod (Solidago) species. Numerous genera and families of forbs are represented as for example the bright pink corolla in the left foreground which is wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis). The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass), Blackland range site. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

100. Graylands form of Blackland Prairie- Adjacent to the hog wallow prairie dominated by mesic tallgrass species is a droughty, acidic soil site with the unique Sylvanus or silver dropseed (Sporobolus sylveanus)-dominated prairie with Mead sedge (Carex meadii) as a local co-dominant and switchgrass, Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum), and rosette panicgrasses (Panicum oligosanthes and/or P. scribnerianum) are associates. Several species of less mesic forbs also occur on graylands but they contribute relatively little biomass to the total range plant community. The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

101. Texas Blackland or Waxyland Prairie- This is another Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie but with several dropseeds including prairie dropseed and tall dropseed, longspike tridens (Tridens strictus), Florida paspalum, and cool-season grasses including Canada wildrye and Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus). The dominant mid-grass is sideoats grama. Texas wintergrass (Stipa leucotricha) is present but only as a spring associate or local dominant and not as a dominant of the peak standing crop community. This tallgrass community is typical of Texas prairies in that the nearly universal dominants are little bluestem and Indiangrass or little bluestem as the dominant and Indiangrass as the major associate with the other grasses varying by microsite. There are numerous microsites on this prairie as it includes the complete sequence of blackland soils with the hog wallow (= gilgai) and mima mound relief. The latter form of microtopography occurs on clay loam or “greyland” soils. In typical prairie “fashion”  there are numerous species of forbs (mostly composites). While these forbs are conspicuous they comprise relatively little of the biomass or plant cover. Dominant forbs include the yellow-flowered rough-stem or rough-leaf rosin weed (Silphium radula) and compassplant (S. laciniatum) and the annual American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana). The prairie seen here is the least mesic upland form of blackland (in contrast to the clay soil upland prairie represented by the preceding slide of Tridens Prairie). One of the soil series present in isolated patches is the classic Houston black clay. Many of the depressions, especially those of Houston black clay, host the the unusual prairie cray(w)fish (Procambarus gracilis) which sinks its shafts down to the wet soil layers, or perhaps to the surface aquifer beneath the virgin sod. This indicates that these prairie soils are more or less permanently wet. Though this is an upland prairie, it is a wet prairie with a hydric water regime (not a marsh of inundated soil with standing surface water but the next thing to it). Trees along the edge of the photograph are part of a gallary forest along a prairie creek. Tree species at edge of prairie include cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), hedge apple or bois-d-arc (Maclura pomifera), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof (the Blackland Prairie is more an extension of the tallgrass [Andropogon-Sorgastrum] prairie than the true [Sporobolus-Stipa] prairie as was incorrectly stated under 717 but it does contain dominant species of both). Clay Loam and trace of Loamy Prairie range sites. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairies Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

102. Detail of the tallgrass sward of Texas Blackland Prairie- This is a little bluestem-Indiangrass dominated tallgrass stand (the tallest and grey-green grass shoots are of Indiangrass) but associated species do contribute appreciable biomass and cover. Gramineae associates include Canada or nodding wildrye, Virginia wildrye, prairie dropseed, tall or meadow dropseed, and longspike tridens. Forb associates include rough-stem rosinweed, compassplant, American basketflower, and Maxmillian sunflower (composites are far more important than all other forb families combined). It should be specified that the dominant cool-season grasses are the wildryes and not Texas wintergrass. The SRM cover type title and description of Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass would be Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Wildrye for this variant, and this is a tallgrass prairie not a true prairie form.  The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof. Clay Loam range site.Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

103. American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana)- The niche of this native annual is interesting given that annuals, including this species, usually are more common on disturbed areas. Here on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie dominated almost exclusively by perennial grasses and forbs this annual composite is obviously plentiful and reproductively successful. This illustrates the great biodiversity possible on natural grassland communities. Clymer Prairie, Hunt Texas, July.

104. Island of Blackland or Waxyland Prairie in Texas Pineywoods- An isolated remnant tract of the “greyland” form of Blackland Prairie with pronounced "hog wallow" microrelief. This type of Waxyland Prairie develops on clay loam soils of the Vertisol order. This remarkable meadow was in the area where the western perimeter of Texas Pineywoods and the easternmost part of the Post Oak Savanna come together rather than in the Blackland Prairie Vegetational Area of Texas (Gould, 1962). A long "lineage" of private landowners had obviously appreciated the value of this native grassland vegetation for a hay meadow which, based on its gilgai microtopography, had also apparently never been plowed. (Gilgai features can reform on plowed Vertisols, but the time frame for such natural restoration is decades [Diggs et al., 2006, p. 63) and it is highly unlikely that land having such remarkable "hog wallow" microtopography had ever had a bloody plow in it.) Unfortunately the virgin soil of this east Texas meadow did not correspond to virgin vegetation. Bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), an introduced agronomic grass (from South America), had invaded this climax tallgrass prairie so that little bluestem and Indiangrass, the dominant decreasers, had been largely displaced by the naturalized (and often weedy) bahiagrass. While there were local spots in this meadow where little bluestem, Indiangrass, tall dropseed, upland switchgrass, and the native midgrass, sideoats grama, were dominant (examples shown below) such local areas constituted a small proportion of this potential tallgrass prairie. The large composite forb, giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima), was also locally dominant and served as a "botanical fossil" as to what once was. One-flower flat (= umbrella) sedge (Cyperus retroflexus) was also locally abundant. Diggs et al. (1999, ps. 37, 41-42) cited work which estimated that that somewhere between 98 to 99.9 % of the original (just before European settlement) Blackland Prairie had been destroyed by plowing and that much, if not most, of the fractional remainder had been severly disturbed by overgrazing, overmowing, invasion by noxious exotic plants, and herbicidal treatment (this latter largely eliminates forbs, many of which add nutritious dry matter to prairie hay and diets of grazing animals). Such combination of these conditions had drastically altered the species composition and structure of the (former) tallgrass meadow presented here. This meadow was most likely subjected to some improper haying practices such as mowing too frequently, too closely (too low a stubble height), and too late in the growing season. This last form of mismanagement or abuse constituted improper season of use. Too-late haying prevents replinishment of food reserves in roots and rootcrowns for maintenance (respiration) during winter dormancy thereby resulting in winter-kill. Invasion by bahiagrass exacerbated degratation of this meadow's plant community. Such invasion was probably facilitated by improper mowing and, perhaps, periodic grazing by cattle (meadow was fenced, but the author did not observe any cattle dung). Seedlings of common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) were present in locally large numbers, and mechanical mowing (albeit it imporper in some aspects) had kept this native, woody species from further invading the virgin sod. Natural fire (or prescribed burning) which also would have eliminated and prevented invasion by persimmon, but in lieu of this natural process mowing had performed this beneficial service. In fact, without mowing and in absence of fire persimmon would have converted much of this meadow into a persimmon thicket. Seed source of persimmon was trees in the fencerow perimeter of this local tallgrass prairie. Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof. Clay Loam range site. East Central Texas Plains- Northern Post Oak Savannah Ecoregion 33a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

105. Hog wallers and other holes- Examples of "hog wallow" depressions of the gilgai microtopography (microvalley and microridge) on an island of Texas Blackland Prairie at western perimeter of Pineywoods. The first slide showed the textbook "hog wallow" microrelief while the second slide presented the "roof ridge" feature (to the left of and making up one side of another "how wallow". Gilai on Blackland Prairie forms on Vertisols die to shrinking and swelling of these soils under varying regimes of precipitation and temperature. Brief details of gilgai and mima mound microrelief are readily available in two excellent flora: 1) Diggs et al., 1999, p.39) and 2) Diggs et al. (2006, ps. 61-65). Little bluestem was well-represented in the range vegetation shown in both photographs, but the less conspicuous bahiagrass was better represented. Bahiagrass is a major weed is this area, even on domestic permanent pastures where it outcompetes and displaces more productive cultivars of more desirable tame grass species such as bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylodon). A few plants of Indiangrass and even fewer of upland switchgrass gave evidence as to composition of the climax plant community for this range site. Giant coneflower was abundant enough that one could not take photographs of the meadow without including some of this dominant (and about the only) forb. One-flower flat (= umbrella) sedge was also present and sometimes locally abundant. Its successional status was not known. Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof. Clay Loam range site. East Central Texas Plains- Northern Post Oak Savannah Ecoregion 33a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

106. Tallgrass and big composites- Area of a Blackland Prairie within Texas Pineywoods on which little bluestem was the local dominant grass with sparse cover of Indiangrass and upland switchgrass, associate grass species, and giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima) varied locally from overall dominant to associate species. Tall dropseed and sideoats grama were present in small propostions, but were also grasses that likely were component species of the climax range plant community, the potential natural vegetation before being greatly altered by white man. Although this delightful little prairie had been wisely (perhaps miraculously) spared from the plow and properly saved as a hay meadow, it had been mowed improperly (probably too frequently, too closely, and with wrong timing) for so long that it had been degraded to the point that bahiagrass had "taken over" much of the meadow. This was a relict spot within the relict prairie on which native species had made their last stand. Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof. Clay Loam range site. East Central Texas Plains- Northern Post Oak Savannah Ecoregion 33a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

107. On the edges- Border of a Blackland Prairie hay meadow in an east Texas in a "border land" between the Post Oak Savanna and Pineywoods (ie. extreme eastern and far-western perimeters of these respecitve vegetational areas). The two large trees in the background perimeter of this meadow were loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), left, and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), right. These trees (and those visible around border of the meadow in photographs presented above) stood as evidence of this small parcel of natural grassland that had developed and persisted as a "floristic island" in a transition area (a fairly broad ecotone) dominated by trees. From the perspective of Landscape Ecology this meadow of tallgrass prairie was a patch within a matrix of forest and savannah. Anderson County, Texas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof. Clay Loam range site. East Central Texas Plains- Northern Post Oak Savannah Ecoregion 33a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

108. Giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima)- The dominant forb on a hay meadow of an isolated patch of Blackland Prairie in the transition of Post Oak Savanna and Pineywoods in east Texas. Giant coneflower is one of the most conspicuous and distinctive of the prairie forbs in the prairies and savannahs of eastern and central Texas. The large pale-blue leaves and general large size of individual plants of giant coneflower make it a good species for neophyte prairie fans and other beginners to learn. The plants shown in these and preceding photographs were all regrowth following recent haying. Anderson County, Texas. October; late-season flowering stage in plant regrowth.

109. One-flower flat (= umbrella) sedge (Cyperus retroflexus)- This was a common species on the degraded Blackland Prairie featured here. It is a widely distributed Cyperus species throughout much of central southern North America (Alabama to Arizona. One-flower flat sedge occurs from east to west Texas. Successional status and response of this species to disturbance (decreaser, increaser, or invader) was not known, but it was likely not a member of the climax plant community (at least not at any substantial cover or abundance). Anderson County, Texas. October.

Prairie Peninsula: Prairie-Deciduous Forest Ecotone (hardwoods-tallgrass savanna)

One of the largest ecotones in North America is the vast transition between eastern deciduous forest formation and the immense humid-to-subhumid tallgrass and true prairies portion of the central grasslands. This ecotone manifests itself primarily as a savanna of various oak and hickory species with an herbaceous understorey of tallgrass and midgrass species plus attendant forb and shrub species. In one of the classic ecological monographs of North American vegetation Transeau (1935) mapped this transition of climax plant communities and labeled the huge savanna the Prairie Peninsula. Subsequent to establishment of the Prairie Peninsula as a more northern manifestation of the tension zone between eastern deciduous forest and central prairie (Transeau, 1935) later workers interpreted similar climax vegetation to the south of the mapped Prairie Peninsula as islands or outliers the savanna, the ecotone, first described by Transeau (1935). The Cross Timbers and much of the Ozark Plateau are now regarded by range and vegetation scientists as part of the greater Prairie Peninsula. These latter vegetational-physiogrphic-geologic areas or units were treated in a separate chapter herein as Tallgrass Savanna under the Grasslands section. This savanna range vegetation was interpreted by the current author as a form of the general central grassland formation more than deciduous forest formation (a rangeman's bias perhaps) yet treated as a distinct major unit of North American vegetation. A brief sample of the Prairie Peninsula within the original region mapped and described by Transean(1935) was included in the present Tallgrass Prairie chapter to provide continuity in treatment and connections among coverage of the various range cover types.

110. A taste of the Prairie Peninsula- Border of natural vegetation at one of infinite (at one time) "confluences", meetings, or minglings of tallgrass prairie and eastern deciduous forest communities. Important prairie species of the grassland included big bluestem, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, prairie dropseed, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and giant goldenrod . Woody vegetation was a gallary forest along Cub Creek comprised of numerous tree species including green ash, red mulberry, black walnut (Juglans nigra), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), and western hackberry. Homestead National Monument, Gage County, Nebraska. July, estival aspect. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Central Great Plains- Rainwater Basin Plains Ecoregion, 27f (Chapman et al., 2001).

111. Landscape-scale view of the western Prairie Peninsula- Near the western extremity of the Ozark Plateau and beginning of eastern Cherokee Prairie (Central Lowlands physiographic province) the famed Prairie Peninsula of tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest have been in slow but perpetual battle for supremacy of the land. Overall dominant plant across this indescribably beautiful "prairiescape" was big bluestem. Local dominant was upland switchgrass, accompanied by Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, little bluestem, and several dropseed species. Dominant forb was the large composite, compassplant (Silphium lacinatum). Oak-hickory forests typical of those in the adjoining Ozark Highlands (Springfield Plateau) had developed on some north slopes and moister valleys of this landscape. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Late July, peak standing crop overall with switchgrass in full-bloom, big bluestem just beginning to elongate shoots, and compassplant at peak bloom. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie), essentially by definition, but SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) is likely a better fit. Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al, 2002).

112. Prairie Peninsula at union of Ozark Plateau and Cherokee Prairie- Well-maintained prairie hay meadow situated within oak-hickory forest on the ancient hills of the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Mountains. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, upland switchgrass, prairie dropseed, purpletop, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, and common or whole-leaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium) were major species in roughly that order. One common grasslike plant was tall or or littlehead nut-sedge (Scleria oligantha). The tracts of oak-hickory forest that were "inter-woven" with tallgrass prairie were dominated--alternatively-- by post oak, blackjack oak, black oak (Quercus velutina), chinquapin oak, and/or black hickory (Carya texana), in locally varying combinations and with such associates as western hackberry, green elm, black walnut, American elm, honey locust, common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Redbud (Cercis canadensis) and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) dominated an upper shrub layer wereas blackberry made up a lower shrub layer. Grass species of the adjoining tallgrass prairie formed an herbaceous understorey. The wildryes and purpletop were typical major grasses. In more open oak-hickory stands big bluestem was dominant as reflected by the local common name of "timbergrass". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, nearing peak standing crop. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

113. Sward of the western Prairie Peninsula- Another (and more detailed) view of the species-rich prairie hay meadow introduced above that was at western edge of the Springfield Plateau and beginning of Cherokee Prairie. In this view ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis) was conspicuous along with lots of prairie blazing star or prairie gayfeather (Liatris pycnostachya).The Four Horsemen of the Prairies were in firm command, but late season haying (late July-early August) had reduced cover of these climax dominants. Increasers like purpletop had replaced some of the original cover of tallgrass decreasers, especially big bluestem (the natural dominant and defining species of this tallgrass prairie vegetation). Species of neighboring oak-hickory Ozark forests were provided in the immediately preceding caption. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, nearing peak standing crop. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

114. Ozark Prairie-Another view (in another year) of the same hay meadow described in the two preceding photographs. This photgraph attempted to portray the mima mound microtopography that is characteristic of virgin sod of tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Plateau. The taller, greener foliage is switchgrass which was growing at base of and up on (all over) mima mounds. Major forbs were giant ironweed (Vernonia crinita) such as the fine specimen in lower left corner, ashy sunflower, yuccaleaf rattlesnake master, prairie gayfeather or prairie blazingstar, whole-leaf rosinweed, whorled milkweed (Asclepias verticillata), foxglove beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis), Culver's root (Veronicastrum virginicum), and fringed poppy mallow or winecup (Callirhoe digitata var. digitata). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July, nearing peak standing crop. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

115. Some Ozark prairie forbs- Local assemblage of native plants on a tallgrass prairie in the western Ozark Plateau. This partial species "photolist" was taken on the same meadow used for prairie hay production that was shown in the immediately preceding photographs. Students should take a little "phot-pop quiz" and see how many species (at least genera or, maybe, families) they can identify. STOP and write down your answers. Now you may proceed. Answers (left to right): whorled milkweed (Asclepias verticillata), prairie gayfeather or blazingstar(Liatris pychostachya), and yuccaleaf rattlesnake master (Eryngium yuccifolium) in Asclepediaceae, Compositae (Asteraceae), and Umbeliferae (Apiaceae), respectively. Actually, there was a fourth forb (and fourth plant family)--though at fruit not flower stage--in center far midground: foxglove beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis) of Scrophulariaceae. Whorled milkweed was sheading fruit (timing can be almost everything in plant photography). Other forbs on this hay meadow were listed in the preceding captions. Lesson: range plant communities labeled as grassland (of the grassland biome) were so designated based on dominance by grass species of the potential natural (climax) vegetation. Such designations were (are) determined based on plant family, category (group), or life form of the dominant species where dominance is defined as to relative proportions (species composition) of the plant community based mostly on foliar or basal cover (hence dominance types= cover types). Other, and usually secondary, population parameters (biostatistics) in determination of dominance sometimes include density, frequency, general abundance, etc. This is the case for biomes and lower hierarchial units therein (associations, faciations, ... all the way down to range site). Hence: shrubland (includiing deserts and chaparral), forests and woodlands, even forbland. There are exceptions to this code or format such as alpine or tundra. Dominance does not refer to number of species in this or that plant family, not which family or group of range/forest plants (grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and/or trees) has the most (greatest number) of species in the community. Rather, domiance refers to which species, family, or plant group occupies the most "volume" (= has the most cover, foliar or basal) such that they "control the high ground" of the canopy layer. On grasslands there are almost always far more species of forbs than of grasses, but grasses dominate the canopy layer (have the greatest cover) and produce the vast bulk of biomass, at least by end of growing season or cumulatively throughout the growing season. On the virgin sod of the prairie hay meadow featured there were about as many (maybe even more) species of composites than of grasses. Throw in legumes, plus members of the snapdragon, carrot or parsley, milkweed, mallow, and other forb families and grasses were outnumbered many times over--as to numbers of species. Again, however, it is cover, biomass, and related measures of dominance not numbers of species--not biological diversity--that determines the cover or dominance types of native vegetation. One species (big bluestem in the climax vegetation described here) will commonly have more cover or greater standing crop than all other species combined. Such single-species dominance (cover) types are consociations (of the Clementsian association). More commonly there will be two or three co-dominant species. The common or scientific names of the dominants provide the title of the dominance (cover) type as, in this instance, the rangeland cover type entitled and described (Shiflet, 1994) as Bluestem Prairie (SRM 601 and/or 710). Incidentially, the main nonforb herb (the local dominant) on many microsites of this meadow was the grasslike plant species, tall or littlehead nut-sedge (Scleria oligantha) of Cyperaceae. Sometimes species of grasslike plants dominate grassland although this is more commonly the case for marshes, mountain meadows, and related types like alpine vegetation. In this example, local dominance by nut-sedge was due to range retrogression. Littlehead nut-sedge was an ecological invader. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late July, nearing peak standing crop. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

116. Natural grass-legume pasture mix- Big bluestem and catclaw sensitivebriar growing side-by-side on an "island" of tallgrass prairie situated within a oak-hickory savanna-forest dominated by black oak (Quercus velutina). Big bluestem was the dominant and Indiangrass was the associate on the tallgrass prairie. From the perspective of Landscape Ecology the smaller natural parcels of prairie can be viewed as patches within the matrix of oak-hickory forest and savanna. Both savanna and forest forms of the oak-hickory cover type had two or more herbaceous layers the taller of which was dominated by big bluestem and various native legumes. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May (late vernal society). FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

117. Species diversity on an Ozark prairie- Sward of tallgrass prairie that had been degraded by decades of mowing for prairie hay in late summer to early autumn. Big bluestem had been largely replaced by tall or or littlehead nut-sedge (Scleria oligantha). In certain microsites forbs were a major component of this abused grassland vegetation. This was especially the case for those forb species that completed their annual growth cycles before destructive late-season hay harvest (ie. such species were largely unaffected by this late-date defoliation). Most of these spring-flowering forbs were climax or at, least, advanced seral species.A species-rich sample of these early growing season forbs was presented in these two "photoquadrants". Forbs included catclaw sensitivebriar, ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis), ground plum (Astragalus crassicarpus var. trichocalyx= A. mexicanus var. trichocalyx), five-finger cinquefoil (Potentilla canadensis var. villosissima), Sampson's snakeroot (Psoralea psoralioides var. eglandulosa) and, the centerpiece of God's own bounteous bouquet,.ragged orchid (Habenaria lacera var. lacera). The main graminoid was littlehead or tall nut-sedge. The most common grass was winter bentgrass (Agrostis hyemalis). All of these species were visible in the first slide. Species details were more prominent in the second slide which was a closer-in view yet with fewer plants of the different species. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May (late vernal society). FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

118. Another sample of species richness in the Ozarks- A third "photoplot" of the sward of a tallgrass prairie degraded by late summer to early autumn haying (the same meadow as shown in the preceding two-slide set). Range plant species in this plot included Junegrass (Koleria cristata), Sampson's snakeroot, littlehead or tall nut-sedge, ground plum, and catclaw sensitivebriar. These were all species that flowered and set fruit in late-spring to early summer. Range plant species--including forbs, grasses, and grasslike plants--that flower in spring to early summer (ie. those that completed their annual cycle far in advance of destructive late-season mowing) were favored over (at a competitive advantage relative to) late summer- or autumn-flowering species. These latter tend to be the larger, dominant, climax species (decreasers such big bluestem, switchgrass, prairie dropseed) under proper management. Cool-season grasses, including natives like Junegrass and winter bentgrass were largely unaffected by late summer or early autumn hay harvest because by this point in time cool-season species had long been dormant. By contrast, the late-date haying coincided with defoliation at advanced phenological stages and when little of the warm-growing season remained for native warm-season climax (decreaser) grasses. It was far too late in the annual growing cycle for these dominant and associate species of tallgrass prairie to replinish storage reserves in rootcrowns and roots which is essential for survival during winter dormancy. This is a textbook example for one of the Cardinal Principles of Range Managment: Proper Season of Use. Prairie hay should be in the bale by no later than mid-July in northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas. Late haying was improper management, and both stupid and ignorant as any observant hay-maker should--with years of experience--be astute enough to figure this out. Such improper management did favor some interesting species even if not the potential natural dominants and the most productive and palatable forage species.Such a pattern of defoliation might well have favored Junegrass and permitted greter density, cover, etc. of this midgrass species than if it had to compete with tallgrass species (even in early parts of the warm-growing season). Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Late May (late vernal society). FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

119. Most species diversity yet- Rainbow of species on a prairie hay meadow in the Springfield Plateau. The first slide included an array of range plants that ranged through grasses, forbs, and even a shrub. Forbs included three legumes all of which were decreaser species: catclaw sensitivebriar, leadplant (Amorpha canescens), and wild or blue false indigo (Baptisia australis var. minor). Grass species ran the gamet from decreasers (big bluestem and switchgrass) to an invader (broomsedge bluestem). The shrub, New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), was a decreaser. Quite a coalition, and one of mostly climax species. These "photoplots" were from a more protected area of a hay meadow that, like the meadow from which the "photosamples" shared immediately above were from, had been degraded through decades of late-summer haying. Big bluestem and switchgrass were the potential natural (climax) dominants, but decreaser species were quite limited and both tallgrass prairie meadows were in a state of deterioration (retrogression) so as to rate in only Fair range condition class. Range vegetation shown here was in a back corner of the hay meadow where local microtopography of mima mounds afforded more protection to prairie plants. Newton County, Missouri. Late May (late vernal society). FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

Wet Prairies and Marshes of Tallgrass Prairie

Within the extensive tallgrass prairie region there are range types and range sites of wet prairie and marsh. Marsh is commonly regarded that kind or form (type) of wetland dominated by herbaceous (vs. woody) vegetation. Marsh was defined by Mitsch and Gosselink (2007, p. 32) as "a frequently or continually inundated wetland characterized by emergent herbaceous vegetation, adapted to saturated soil conditions". More specifically and in common usage among rangemen marshes are interpreted as wetlands dominated by grasslike plants, especially those of Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, and Typhaceae, rather than grasses (Gramineae) although grasses are frequently major marsh species. Thus, by converntion marshes are distinct from grasslands, including wet grasslands. The two most common types (kinds or forms) of wet grasslands are:1) wet prairies, especially, and 2) wet meadows, secondarily (when dominant plants are grass species). Mitsch and Gosselink (2007, p. 33) defined wet meadow as "grassland with waterlogged soil near the surface but without standing water for most of the year" whereas wet prairie was described as "similar to a marsh, but with water levels usually intermediate between a marsh and a wet meadow". In other words, these authors defined units of natural wetland vegetation based on soil water parameters (conditions). In this chapter on tallgrass prairie and throughout Range Types the current author definded and distinguished among such herbaceous wetlands as marshes, wet prairies, and wet meadows primarily as to vegetation (range plant communities) and secondly based on edaphic water criteria. A complication and source of confusion in description of range vegetation naturally arises when marshes such as those dominated by rushes, sedges, bulrushes, cattails, etc. occur as units of natural range plant communities within the general, surrounding tallgrass prairie region, especially when there are contiguous range types that form continua of native vegetation ranging from dry upland to mesic tallgrass prairie, wet tallgrass prairie, and marshes that are dominated (if not comprised completely) of grasslike plant species. Therefore, for consistently in treatment of range vegetation, marshes and meadows were not regarded herein as grasslands or grassland types. However, for some degree of continuity and to facilitate locating of range types herein as well as understanding relations among range types some examples of marshes--along with wet prairies--were included immediately below to avoid confusion and represent the continuum of mesic prairie, wet prairie, and marsh. For these same reasons, marshes, lake vegetation, and related wetlands in the Nebraska Sandhills were also included with the postclimax tallgrass prairies of semiarid areas that was included later in this chapter. Otherwise, marshes were treated separately in Range Types of North America under the chapter, Meadows and Related Marshes.

Continuum of Wet Prairie to Marsh

A mosaic of wetlands ranging from wet prairie to river floodplain to marsh exist in the immediate vicinity of the Salt Fork of the Arkansas River in northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas. This natural "patchwork" of various grasslands and marshes provided a good example herbaceous wetlands within the tallgrass prairie region. Marshes are not grasslands strictly speaking or in precise usage, but in the example provided here (and it was a typical situation over formerly large areas in the once-vast grassland domain of central North America) marshes and wet prairie formed an intricate, inter-related herbaceous vegetation at both landscape and ecosystem levels. These two biomes were interconnected by processes at landscape-scale (an example worthy of an undergraduate textbook in Landscape Ecology). For this reason these two general plant communities (grassland and marsh biomes) were treated simultaneously and included in this location in Range Types of North America. The tule marshes were also included under the Meadows chapter of the Grassland biome to facilitate use by students. In the Arkansas River lowland example employed below differences in salinity and moisture conditions of soil at small (local) spatial scale resulted in a small-scale mosaic of wet (and somewhat saline) tallgrass prairie, mixed prairie, and bulrush or tule marsh in amazingly close proximity to each other.

120. Wet Saline Prairie- Tallgrass prairie comprised of switchgrass, the dominant, and big blusestem, the associate species, surrounded and, in turn, was surrounded by more saline areas dominated by inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta= D. spicata var. stricta) with associated species ranging from the forb, frogfruit (Lipppia lanceolata) which was the broadleaf species in foreground of this slide, to plains lovegrass (Eragrostis intermedia) to Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus) and, with much less cover, cheatgrass (B. tectorum). Both of these Bromus species are naturalized Eurasian cool-season annuals. The stand (a consociation) of switchgrass (the bottomland form; a lowland eoctype) seen in background background was shown at local scale in the next photograph. The local stand of tallgrasses (mostly switchgrass) in left foreground was on a more saline microhabitat so that grass growth and development was less and behind that of the same species on less saline soil. Clarification: It was explained in several captions below that grassland vegetation on the Arkansas River lowland that was described in this section was labeled as wet prairie or wet saline prairie and not marsh. Designation of marsh was applied only to wetlands having their land surface covered with water during most--at least during critical parts--of the plant-growing season, and typically supporting grasslike plants rather than grasses. The tule or bulrush marsh presented later provided an example of marsh vegetation. Such marshes are not tallgrass prairie (they are not grassland at all), but the example referred to was included (below) in this portion of the Tallgrass Prairie chapter because these herbaceous wetlands occur in restricted areas within the tallgrass prairie region. General floodplain (lowland) of the Salt Fork of Arkansas River. Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. Range plant communities of tallgrass species (mostly big bluestem and switchgrass) was FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM rangeland cover type 710 (Bluestem Prairie), but situated within this range community were communities of short- and/or midgrass species, especially inland saltgrass. These latter grassland communities often covered greater area than surrounding tallgrass vegetation. There was not an SRM inland saltgrass rangeland cover type. Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Saline Subirrigated range site. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

121. Standing together- Stand of tallgrass prairie, of which a bottomland ecotype of switchgrass was dominant and big bluestem was associate to local co-dominant, on higher ground of a wet prairie (floodplain of Arkansas River). This was a "photo-quadrant" of the range vegetation shown in the background of the immediately preceding photograph. Tallgrass stands like this one had developed on the higher level (elevation) land whereas lower ying local relief commonly supported consociations of inland saltgrass. Certain plant species such as plains lovegrass, Illinois bundleflower, and both japanese chess and cheatgrass (two naturalized Eurasian annual grasses) were more common in local ecotones (edges) between with these two distinct range plant communities. This extensive vegetational mosaic existed around freshwater tule (bulrush) marshes that had stands of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) around their perimeters. This spatial arrangement of freshwater marshes and a "patchwork" of tallgrass wet prairie interspersed with midgrasses on the greater floodplain of the Arkansas River rproduced a landscape-scale grassland-marsh complex with interacting ecosystems. General floodplain (lowland) of the Salt Fork of Arkansas River.Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. Range plant communities of tallgrass species (mostly big bluestem and switchgrass) was FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM rangeland cover type 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Saline Subirrigated range site. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

122. Tallgrass and midgrass; mound and swale- Two views of local stands of tallgrass wet prairie (switchgrass and big bluestem, with the former more commonly dominant) on slighted elevated ground (including mima mounds as shown here) interspersed with local, primarily single-species stands (consociations) of inland saltgrass on lower elevation land. Differences in elevation of land (soil surface) was usually just a matter of inches to a few feet even from depth of swales or "micro-valleys" to top of mima mounds, but it was sufficient to account for the profound differences in these local range plant communities. Salt content was undoubtedly a major factor in determining which of these two drastically distinct range plant communities grew on the two forms of local relief (micro-topography). Other edaphic factors were almost assuredly involved also, including greater soil depth on mjma mounds. The first photograph presented a view of this range at a camera distance that showed the overall vegetational mosaic and "lay of the land" with both mima mound and low-lying intemound spaces. The second photograph was taken at shorter camera distance and showed specifics of the local relief and corresponding range vegetation (eg. switchgrass and big bluestem on the same mima mound and inland saltgrass all around base of teh mima mound). Relatively large areas of bare soil surface were widespread and characteristic of this wet prairie range. Illinois bundleflower and plains lovegrass were locally abundant at outer edges of the stands of midgrass (mostly inland saltgrass) such as shown growing conspicuously in center and right foreground in the second slide. Western ragweeed (Ambrosia psilostachya) was an associate species on such perimeters (lower right corner of second slide). Question as to proper designation of wetland: It was not known whether this natural wetland vegetation was more precisely described as wet prairie or as salt marsh. Perhaps the tallgrass (switchgrass and big bluestem) range vegetation was wet prairie and the slightly lower elevation and more saline soil (usually a consociation of inland saltgrass) was salt marsh. This author was reluctant to label any grassland plant community as a marsh instead restricting the designation of marsh only to land inundulated with water (standing water on the land surface) for a good part of the plant-growing season (eg. the tule or bulrush marsh covered below). General floodplain (lowland) of the Salt Fork of Arkansas River. Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. Range plant communities of tallgrass species (mostly big bluestem and switchgrass) was FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM rangeland cover type 710 (Bluestem Prairie), but situated within this range community were communities of short- and/or midgrass species, especially inland saltgrass. These latter grassland communities often covered greater area than surrounding tallgrass vegetation. There was not an SRM inland saltgrass rangeland cover type. Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Saline Subirrigated range site. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

123. Salty stand- Wet saline prairie in part of the Salt Fork Arkansas River Valley that was a consociation of inland saltgrass that extended over a large area as part of a vegetational mosaic with tallgrass (switchgrass and big bluestem) prairie that developed on slightly land. A large expanse of this tallgrass plant community was in the far background of this photograph. About the only other plant species in this expansive stand of inland saltgrass was Japanese brome or Japanese chess, and it was present only as scattered individuals. Successional state of the inland saltgrass community was not known, but this worker suspected that it was climax, or at least the potential natural vegetation for which a climax might not exist if the soil in the swale (the fairly level land situated within or among mima mounds) was not a mature soil. The description of this range site in the soil survey (Soil Conservtion Service, 1985, p. 55) stated that "continued overgrazing and extreme climatic conditions" ultimately results in range deterioration to a degraded community including inland saltgrass, ragweed, and annual grasses. The pattern o f retrogression on this range site (includinga brief description of intermediate successional stages) may well be an accurate visualization of the path of range depletion, but that range site description did not--indeed, by itself, could not--explain simultaneous presence of extensive populations (single-species stands) of inland saltgrass immediately adjacent to the obvious tallgrass climaax of switchgrass and big bluestem. It appeared to this rangeman that both the tallgrass and the inland saltgrass communities were climax . Any overgrazing (it would have been in the somewhat distant past as this grassland was not being overgrazed and had not been overgrazed in recent years) would have resulted in replacement of the obvious tallgrass climax on mima mounds the same as on intermound spaces. Thus, it seemed highly unlikely that inland saltgrass was other than climax range vegetation (ie. a consociation). The key words in the range site description by agency range conservationists (Soil Conservtion Service, 1985, p. 55) were most likely "extreme climatic conditions". In more precise ecological terms these three words would be read as something like "harsh microclimate" (ie. "climatic conditions" would refer to microhabitat, microsite, or microenvironment) where much of the "extreme" nature of conditions would edaphic and/or topographic (perhaps reflecting drainage, salt accumulation, and related factors). Presence of climax (decreaser) Illinois bundleflower along with "weedy" seral forbs like western wheatgrass in stands of inland saltgrass was further evidence of the climax nature of range plant communities dominated by inland saltgrass. It was illogical to conclude that overgrazing had depleted tallgrasses and resulted in their replacement by inland saltgrass on land of level or flat microtopography while right next to this microland form tallgrass (switchgrass and big bluesetm-dominated) vegetation on mima mounds had not been impacted by grazing, or had recovered from past grazing abuse so much faster. Some other factor(s) had to be more responsible than grazing management. General floodplain (lowland) of the Salt Fork of Arkansas River. Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). No Kuchler or SRM designation for inland saltgrass. In Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) this would be Saltgrass Series 242.34 (if one was shown which it was not) of Plains Interior Marshland 242.3. Saline Subirrigated range site. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

124. Fresh water bulrush or tule marsh- General or overall views of a freshwater marsh at edge of the Arkansas River Valley (Salt Fork) existing as a consociation of tule or bulrush known variously as Americn bulrush, saltmarsh bulrush, Olney threesquare, and chairmaker's club-rush, (Scirpus olneyi= S. americanus= Schoenoplectus americanus) and with the twining forb, fogrfruit (Lipppia lanceolata), as associate species. Minor (other than locally) plant species included American water plantain (Alisma subcordatum), southern annual saltmarsh aster (Aster divaricatus= A. subulatus var. ligulatus), and Engelman's spikerush (Eleocharis engelmannii). For all practical purposes there were essentially no other plant species present in this freshwater marsh. The first of these two slides presented a wider view of the entire range plant community of the tule marsh and associated range vegetation around the perimeter from adjoining plant communities. Range communities around the margins of the marsh wer shown in the second slide. This second photograph showed a local forest of eastern cottonwood that had developed around edges of the marsh. This local forest had been invaded by the naturalized and dreadfully invasive shrub, Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), that was readily distinguished by its silvery gray-colored leaves. Edge species: in this immediate locality there were places where sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.) and rushes (Juncus spp.) grew along perimeters of freshwater tule marshes where this range vegetation contacted wet--often saline--prairie. An example of such contacts and the resulting local-scale ecotonal (transitional) vegetation, including sedges and rushes, was shown at end of this section. Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-42-Tule Mrashes. No SRM designation of a rangeland cover type for tule marshes. In Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) this would be Bulrush Series 242.33 (if one was shown which it was not) of Plains Interior Marshland 242.3. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

125. Stand of chair-makers' rush ( Scirpus americanus)- The local freshwater marsh introduced in the preceding two photographs was a consociation of a major species of bulrush that has a "pasal" of both common and scientific names including Olney threesquare, chairmaker's club-rush, saltmarsh bulrush or Americn bulrush (Scirpus olneyi= S. americanus= Schoenoplectus americanus). Frogfruit was the associate--and about the only other--plant species of this marsh other than incidental (found only sporatically) species which were listed in the immediately preceding caption. It was possible that there were some infrequent plants of hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus= Schoenoplectus acutus), but this species could not be positively identified. Note on taxonomy of Cyperaceae including the bulrushes or tules: Radical changes in nomenclature and general taxonomic organization have been in the Cyperaceae that have created confusion, if not chaos, among all users of scientific names except for the elites who change the names and systematics. To ease the pain and facilitate study of range vegetation both the traditional and revised (ie. revolutionary) binomials were shown for this species. Detailed views of this wetland range vegetation were presented in the next two slides and caption. Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-42-Tule Mrashes. No SRM designation of a rangeland cover type for tule marshes. In Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) this would be Bulrush Series 242.33 (if one was shown which it was not) of Plains Interior Marshland 242.3. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

126. Those of a freshwater marsh- Two progressively closer views of range vegetation in a freshwater marsh almost exclusively dominated by chairmakers' club-rush, chair-makers' rush, Olney threesquare, or Americn bulrush. The associate species was frogfruit (mostly visible in the second slide). Other--though only incidental--species included American water plantain, southern annual saltmarsh aster, and Engelman's spikerush. The chairmakers' or American bulrush was in early bloom stage. (An example of inflorescence and stem of this bulrush species was presented below.) Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-42-Tule Mrashes. No SRM designation of a rangeland cover type for tule marshes. In Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) this would be Bulrush Series 242.33 (if one was shown which it was not) of Plains Interior Marshland 242.3. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

127. Tule marsh and pond (and cows in it)- A vegetational mosaic of tallgrass (switchgrass and big bluestem-dominated) wet prairie, inland saltgrass saline prairie, and freshwater marsh dominated by (a consociation of) American bulrush or chairmakers' rush vegetation on floodplain (lowland) of the Salt Fork of Arkansas River. These three distinct range plant communities were shown and described above (in this section, entitled Continuum of Wet Prairie to Marsh). The tallgrass (switchgrass-big bluestem) wet prairie and the inland saltgrass low (saline) prairie existed in such intiricate and intimate association that they could be viewed as one general grassland (a biome) community that was distinct from the marsh (another, even if small-scale, biome). That these two (if viewed at biome-scale and distinction) or three (if viewed on basis of dominant plant species) range plant communities sometimes developed "cheek by jowl" was shown cleaerly in this photograph. In fact, a natural (not manmade) freshwater pond (with two cows) in the tule marsh was thrown in for good measure. Range vegetation in foreground was transitional (ecotonal) between tallgrass wet prairie and tule (bulrush) marsh. Major range species in this local ecotone included switchgrass (a bottomland ecotype), Torrey rush (Juncus torreyi), Ehgelmann's spike-rush, caric sedges (Carex spp.), and umbrella sedges (Cyperus spp.). Species of the latter two genera could not be identified in their current vegetative (pre-bloom) phenological stages. Grant County, Oklahoma. June; late vernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-42-Tule Mrashes. No SRM designation of a rangeland cover type for tule marshes. In Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) this would be Bulrush Series 242.33 (if one was shown which it was not) of Plains Interior Marshland 242.3. Central Great Plains- Prairie Tableland Ecoregion, 27d (Woods et al., 2005).

128. Taxonomy and nomenclature: Recent (beginning primarily in 1990s) names and interpretations of phylogenetic relations in the bulrushes or tules is a bloody mess. According to the unpublished Great Salt Plains Refuge plant species list (and referencing back to published species synonyms) these species of Scirpus were on this range:. 1) chairmakers' rush, American bulrush, or three square (S. americanus), 2) salt marsh or alkali bulrush (S. paludosus= S. maritimus),and 3) soft-stem or great bulrush (S. validus). S validus was shown on the refuge list as synonyous with S. tabernaemontani which has usually been shown as synonymous with S. acutus which was generally known as a separate species with common names of hard-stem or, also, great bulrush. Thus there might be as many as four species of bulrush or tule on the range of this refuge. Finally, it was noted that all of these tule or bulrush species which were previously shown as Scirpus had been changed to Schoenoplectus. These examples of chairmakers' rush, American bulrush, or three square were from Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June (near peak biomass, some shoots at full-boom).

129. "Froggie Went A-Courtin'"- Frog (sometimes, fog)-fruit (Phyla lanceolata) is a member of the vervain family (Verbenaceae) that grows on a remarkably diverse array of habitats. These range environments generally seem to be locally disturbed and/or wet microsites. One seemingly inconsistent habitat was as an associate species on a tule marsh in northcentral Oklahoma at the western edge of the the tallgrass prairie region. Specimens of frog-fruit there were not as advanced as others previously photographed by the author so the latter were "transplanted" here. Either way and on both ranges, frog-fruit fared better than Froggie (or was it "Froggy"?) and Miss Mouse in the timeless ballad. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. June; full-bloom stage.

130. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by prairie cordgrass (also called sloughgrass) with eastern gamagrass and bottomland switchgrass as two associate species. The conspicuous forbs are foxglove beard-tongue (Penstemon digitalis) which is nearing end of its flowering period and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) which is at late pre-bloom stage. Almost no grasslike plants such as Carex, Juncus, or Scirpus species were common. The heavy clay soil of this bottomland retains so much moisture that prairie crawfish have dug numerous shafts and thrown up short earthen chimneys throughout the ground of what is one of the largest and most pristine examples remaining of this rare type of tallgrass prairie. So far this priceless representative of the once vast North American prairie has been protected by it's use as an unbelievably productive hay meadow. Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Central Lowland physiographic province. This is a part of the general Osage Section of the overall Central Lowland province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601(Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2001).

Organization note: examples of foxglove or smooth beardtongue were shown below with other members ot the Scrophuloraceae, the snapdragon family, including other Penstemon species..

131. Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)- Swamp milkweed on go-back ground (an old field) on wet prairie in the western Ozark (springfield) Plateau. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.

132. Swampy pollinators- An assortment of pollinating insects, including both those of orders Diptera (first slide) and Lepidopetra (second and third slides) visiting the swamp milkweed plants introduced in the preceding slide. Photographic note: certain butterfly species, including monarch (Danaus plexippus) have their wings in almost constant motion while feeding. Thus photographs taken at slow speed (like 1/15 second as done here) to get depth of field will often show the blurred moving wings like those in the monarch in third slide. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July.

133. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by eastern gamagrass with bottomland switchgrass the general associate species (locally the dominant) with prairie cordgrass the third major grass species. This was a separate hay meadow adjoining the one shown in the last photograph of wet prairie, but here prairie cordgrass came in third behind the other two bottomland prairie species. This was another example of one of the most beautiful bottomland tallgrass prairies the author was ever blessed to enjoy. Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

Nebraska Sandhills (and related postclimax tallgrass types)

Sand and sandy soils (also gravel for that matter) have a higher proportion of macropores (noncapillary pores) so that there is less water runoff and more water that infiltrates this rooting material for plants. Conversely,there is less water retained in the coarse or heavy textured soils as compared to fine (light)-textured soils such as clay; however, , more of the retained water in coarse textures (eg. sand) is available for plant absorption. Also many plants that are adapted to coarse-textured soils have a high proportion of their roots near the land surface so that they absorb this temporarily shallow water before it evaporates or percolates below their root zones. Net result is that the native vegetation on sand, sand dunes, and high sand-content soils is typically more mesophytic than vegetation on adjacent or neighboring soils comprised of less coarse particles (those that have finner soil texture). This was explained in Weaver and Clements (1938, p. 203-204) by the Clementsian concept of chresard. Chresard is that part of total soil water, the whole content of water in soil (= holard), that is available for plant absorption or use by the plant part. The echard (to withold) is that portion of water still present (held or retained) in soil at the permanent wilting point (ie. water that is unavailable for plant use; water that adheres to tightly to soil particles that plants cannot absorb it). Holard minus chresard equals echard (or any other arrangement of these portions ssuch as holard minus echard equals chresarde or chresard plus echard equals holard). In the Clementsian monoclimax model natural vegetation of sandy environments if postclimax "In Nebraska the relation [transition from true to mixed prairie] is further disturbed by the extensive sand-hill region, in which the high chresard favors a postclimax of tall grasses far beyond their proper climate [ie. beyond the climatic or regional climax]" (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 524). "In the vast sand-hill area of Nebraska, the tall-grass postclimax attains its best development, which is assumed to reflect the climate when the prairies were occupied by the bluestems and their associates some millions of years ago" (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 86). This also included shrubs such as New Jersey tea, sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), and soapweed yucca. The sandhill region of Nebraska and similar smaller areas in other parts of the Great Plains including some in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico support more mesic (more moisture-requiring) range vegetation than that of less porous soils in the same region or area. In the vernacular of Tansley's polyclimax model or Whittaker's climax pattern interpretation postclimax vegetation would be edaphic and/or topographic climax vegetation (edapho-topographic climaxes). Same ecological (successional or climax) outcome. Tallgrass prairie range vegetation in the Nebraska Sandhills (and some similar range communities in Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, etc.) is in the Mixed Prairie Region though, of course, it is not mixed prairie. As such, postclimax or edaphic-topographic climax tallgrass prairie was covered in this chapter. This included such range types as sand sagebrush- and shinnery oak (Quercus havardii)-tallgrass savannas as well as the classic Nebraska Sandhills tallgrass prairie. Range types of mixed prairie, including some in the Nebraska Sandhills (not all Sandhills grassland is tallgrass prairie), were (logically) dealt with in the chapter, Mixed Prairie. Organization note: The Nebraska Sandhills as well as related tallgrass prairie subtypes or forms of the Southern Great Plains (= High Plains, Staked Plains, Llano Estacado) were treated separately in the subsequent chapter, Tallgrass Prairie (Interior)- II. A few photographs of the famed Nebraska Sandhills were retained in this chapter to make for a smoother transition to that next chapter that was devoted to tallgrass prairie vegetation of the semiarid zone.

134. Farmed Sand Hills of Nebraska ("God's Own Cow Country")- This western-most extension of tallgrass prairie is typically a community of the Four Horsemen species. Region-wide little bluestem, State Grass of Nebraska, is clearly dominant in an abiotic environment more characteristic of tall and true prairies than the mixed prairie that would be expected in this semiarid precipitation zone. The Sand Hills range vegetation type is the product of soils of deep sand, often accompanied by shallow surface acquifers. In classic Clementsian view this tallgrass prairie is postclimax to both true and mixed prairie. This is a Choppy Sands range site with sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), sand lovegrass (Eragrostis trichodes), and prairie sandreed (Calamagrostis longifolia) the dominant species. Cherry County Nebraska. Hiemal aspect, October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-67 (Nebraska Sand Hills Prairie). SRM 602 (Bluestem- Prairie Sandreed). Nebraska Sand Hills- Sand Hills Ecoregion, 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

135. Sands range site of the Nebraska Sand Hills- Same species as above with more mid and short grasses like blue and hairy grama (Bouteloua gracilis,B. hirsuta) and Junegrass. Cherry County, Nebraska. Hiemal aspect, October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-67 (Nebraska Sand Hills Prairie). SRM 602 (Bluestem- Prairie Sandreed). Nebraska Sand Hills- Sand Hills Ecoregion, 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

136. Sandhills Marsh- Wetland range site.Mostly grass-like plants such as rushes (Juncus spp.), cattail (Typha angustifolia, T. latifolia), bur-reed (Sparganiumeurycarpum ) locallywith sedges (Carex spp.) throughout.Note lodge of muskrat (Ondrata zibethica). Cherry County Nebraska. As part of tallgrass prairie this is in FRES No. 39, but as a marsh it could as logically be placed in the tremendously varied FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). Either a hydric variant of K-67 (Nebraska Sand Hills Prairie) or K- 42 (Tule Marshes). Wetlands variant of SRM 602 (Bluestem- Prairie Sandreed). Nebraska Sand Hills- Lake Area Ecoregion, 44d (Chapman et al., 2001).

Final reminder: complete treatment of Nebraska Sandhills and other tallgrass prairie range plant communities of the semiarid zone are in the chapter, Tallgrass Prairie (Interior)-II.

Directions to related range types- Several other examples of tallgrass prairie or tallgrass savanna wetlands were included within Range Types of North America. It was (always will be) arbitrary as to where these (and other) range cover types should be situated within a publication. Inclusion at this juncture within this Tallgrass Prairie chapter was logical, but this chapter was already "overloaded". Likewise some of these wetlands though comprised of tallgrass species (among others) had developed as "islands" within the semiarid precipitation zone and not in the Tallgrass Prairie Region. The most obvious of these were some, including marshes, within the Nebraska Sandhills. These were therefore covered in the chapter, Tallgrass Prairie (Interior)-II. A wet (essentially subirrigated throughout much of the year) prairie or prairie savanna dominated by bottomland switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and Maximillian sunflower (Helianthus maximillianii) with narrowleaf cattail (Typha domingensis), heath aster (Aster ericoides), and pink boneset (Eupatorium incarnatum) as associate herbs and with black willow (Salix nigra) as a woody component had developed in an ecotone of Grand (Fort Worth) Prairie and West Cross Timbers. Treatment of this wetland range vegetation was included in a section entitled, "Savanna Wetlands" in the chapter, Meadows and Related Marshes, under the heading,Grasslands. Also in the Meadows and Related Marshes chapter and under the section entitled, Savanna Wetlands, was a wetland savanna dominated by bottomland switchgrass, American bulrush or chairmaker's rush square (Scirpus americanus= S. olneyi), and hairy (hairy seed) rose mallow (Hibiscus lasiocarpos) with eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and black willow (Salix nigra) in the Cherokee Prairie of northeast Oklahoma plus a savanna of eastern cotton and peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides) with great or soft-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus), tapertip flat (umbrella) sedge (Cyperus accumulatus), narrowleaf cattail (Typha domingensis) in the Smoky Hills of central Kansas.

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