Pacific Northwest Forests

The Northern Pacific Coast Coniferous Forest is a long but narrow belt of various species of coniferous and, some, hardwood trees occupying the coastal side of the Coast Range from northern California northward to the Gulf of Alaska. It consist of four or more subunits or major climax communities each of which occupies a segment of the north-south coastal belt. These distinctive climax or zonal divisions correspond to component forest cover types.

The entire Pacific Coast Forest and each of its distinctive component communities are some of the most magnificent, productive, and economically valuable forests on Earth. The commercial forests within the Pacific Coast Forest are the basis of the powerful and essential timber industry. This vegetation is neither a major source of range feed nor of big game habitat, but it is important in these capacities especially at local and regional levels. The forest vegetation is more productive of livestock and ungulate wildlife following disturbances such as logging that “open up the woods” and set the stage for forage and browse production as the forests grow back through secondary succession. In other words, these are usually transitory forest range. They are more valuable as range in the post-forest harvest transition, but even virgin or old-growth forest typically have botanically diverse multi-layered understories. Though these primeval forests are less productive of ungulate feed they can be viewed and managed as permanent forest range, especially for wildlife.

Photographs of the Pacific Coast Forest include virgin vegetation as permanent  forest range and both scientifically managed and cut-over (”cut-and-run”) forest as transitory forest range. 

A useful way to visualize the North Pacific Coast Forest is the division by Kuchler

(1966) into:

In addition there is a narrow band of vegetation which is composed primarily of "runt" trees interspersed with "regular" forests of coast redwood and western hemlock. This community of depauperate trees (largely an edaphic climax) was described by Vogl et al. in Barbour and Major (1995, ps. 295-358 passim) as "closed- cone pines and cypress". While both individual mature trees and tree community often have the height characteristics of shrubs they are coniferous tree species and have the single bole feature of trees. It seemed more logical to include this unique pygmy forest, as it is most commonly described, with forest rather than shrubland types.

These are potential natural vegetation or climax units. The Society of American Foresters classification “is based on existing tree cover”, “… forests as they are today…”. Eyre (1980) divided the Pacific Coast Forest into 10 SAF forest cover types: 223 (Sitka Spruce), 224 (Western Hemlock), 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce), 226 (Coastal True Fir-Hemlock), 227 (western Redcedar-Western Hemlock), 228 (Western Redcedar), 229 (Pacific Douglas-Fir), 230 (Douglas –Fir-Western Hemlock), 231 (Port Orford-Cedar), and 232 (Redwood).

Obviously the SAF split out single species managed on commercial forests almost as monocultures for economic advantages (eg. Pacific Douglas-Fir, Redwood). When adjustment is made for this necessity the FRES-Kuchler and Society of American Foresters units match very closely. In fact some are “perfect fits” (eg. K-111 and SAF 225). As with all interpretations of vegetation, much is subjective, value judgment-ridden, and “in the eye of the beholder”. Efforts were made to correspond FRES-Kuchler units and SAF Cover Types as closely as possible.

1. One of the various forms or subtypes of the ponderosa pine forest range type is this one in the inland Pacific Northwest where the herbaceous understory layer is dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass and the shrub understory dominants are snowberry and antelope bitterbrush. This is a transition vegetation type or broad ecotone in the Columbia Basin between Palouse Prairie and the ponderosa pine zone of the Blue Mountains and Okanogan Highlands. In the classic Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington Franklin and Dryness (1973, p. 172-180) identified both ponderosa pine/ bluebunch wheatgrass and ponderosa pine/ bitterbrush/ bluebunch wheatgrass associations as transitions "between steppe or shrub-steppe and forest". Interior ponderosa pine type.

2. Douglas fir montane forest type-- interior Douglas fir type-- in Southern Rocky Mountain— This dense stand of Rocky Mountain Douglas fir is a north slope community along the Frasher River at an elevation of 8,000 to 9,000 feet. Canadian life zone of C. Hart Merriam. Arapaho National Forest, Gilpin County, Colorado.

FRES No. 20 (Douglas Fir Ecosystem). K-11 (Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 210 (Interior Douglas-fir). Pseudotsuga menziesii Association, Douglas Fir-White Fir (Mixed Conifer) Series in Rocky Mountain Montane Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

3. Interior Douglas fir forest range type growing on a bottomland or alluvial site along the Snake River— Ponderosa and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) are associated upperstory species. The herb layer is dominated by Poa, Festuca, andStipa species. Transition life zone of C. Hart Merriam. Targhee National Forest, Lincoln County, Wyoming.

4. Second-growth Douglas-fir Forest- This is an example of the typical Douglas-fir industrial or commercial forest. It is a single-species stand (forest monoculture) maintained silviculturally by clearcutting and replanting for efficient production and harvest of the most economically valuable lumber species in North America. A few scattered tanbark oak and Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) are visible. Tens of thousands of acres of commercial forest grow this species as a crop just like monocultures of corn, soybeans, wheat, or cotton. It is not a natural forest community and, in fact, Douglas-fir may even be a subclimax species on some sites maintained as a Douglas-fir stand. It is a concept of Ecology that on some sites and under certain conditions subclimax vegetation may be the most productive: 1) ecologically in terms of net primary productivity, 2) agriculturally/silviculturally  in terms of commodity (board foot of lumber in this case), and 3) economically (to maximize profit). 

Understandably, some people express concerns about monocultural forestry and loss of species diversity along with changes in forest ecosystem structure and function. Such concerns are often justified, but a mixture of single-species (more or less) forests, natural forests including both old-growth and re-growth forest, and farm land can be more productive overall for an array of goods and services for people and even for wildlife. This emphasis is on can and assuming the “right blend”. Reduction of old-growth forests is but one issue (though the most spectacular and political one) in this region-size problem in proper use of natural resources.

6. Second-growth Douglas-fir forest- Potential natural vegetation of this site is climax Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock (SAF 227), but the forest is now in an advanced seral stage dominated by Pacific Douglas-fir so as to be functionally SAF 229. Almost all regeneration (seedlings and poles) in background was of western redcedar and westrn hemlock, both of which were rated as Very Tolerant (vs. Intermediate of Douglas-fir) by the Society of American Foresters (Wenger, 1984, p. 3).

Understorey dominants were various species of huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), including red huckleberry (V. parviflorum). Olympic Peninsula province.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir).

7. Second growth Douglas-fir forest- The climax vegetation for this site isi Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock (SAF 230) but Douglas-fir which is typically a seral species of this cover type was still dominant with most cover and largest trees being Douglas-fir. This was a typical example of the silvicultural situation in which commercial forests in the Pacific Northwest are managed for the faster-growing and superior lumber-producing Douglas-fir instead of the climax conifers.

Most of the conifer regeneration in the forest community shown here was of the more tolerant climax.western redcedar and western hemlock, but the long-lived Douglas-firs would persist as a component of the climax forest. Dominant understorey plants were various species of huckleberry such as red huckleberry which is also often a member of the climax vegetation. Olympic Peninsula forest.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir).

8. Recent clearcut with natural regeneration of Douglas-fir- A small area of second-growth western redcedar-western hemlock-Douglas-fir forest in the Western Cascades of northwestern Oregon had been clearcut just before the current growing season. Regeneration of Douglas-fir from the soil seedbank was apparent as was a population of pioneer species like the common bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) and other composites. Sword fern (Polystichum munitum), a dominant understory forb species at all successional stages, was recovering and functioned as a pioneer species also.

Linn County, Oregon. June. FRES No.20 (Douglas-fir forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-western hemlock/salal association of Kagan et al. (2004).

9. Regeneration of Douglas-fir on recent clearcut- New seedlings (barely visible in photograph) and older seedlings not killed during harvest operations were revegetating a "new" clearcut of a former second-grwoth western redcedar-western hemlock,-Douglas-fir forest in Western Cascades of northwestern Oregon. Bull thistle and sword fern were the major herbceous plants on this land undergoing secondary plant succession.

Linn County, Oregon. June.FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/western hemlock-salal association of Kagan et al. (2004).

10. Two-year-old clearcut of Pacific Dougls-fir- View from leading edge of a two-year clearcut looking across main body of the harvested area. In foreground where Douglas-fir had been scattered so as to limit soil disturbance from logging there was immediate recovery of native and introduced perennial cool-season grasses and forbs. Major grasses were the native blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus) and the agronomic species orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). The introduced legume, wooly or, sometimes, hairy vetch (Vicia villosa= V.dasycarpa) was also common.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

11. Interior of a two-year-old clearcut of Pacific Douglas-fir. Following light surface fire this clearcut had been replanted to Douglas-fir the previous year and was into the second summer after logging operations. Industrial forest in the Coast Ranges physiographic province.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

12. Clearcut browse- Along part of the perimeter of a two-year-old Pacific Douglas-fir clearcut bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) and Oregon white oat or Garry oak (Quercus garryana) were sprouting from stumps following felling of trees during logging operations. Note also replanted Douglas-fir. Fire to reduce slash had been part of site preparation. Details of stump sprouting shown in two slides immediately below. This forest was in the Coast Ranges province.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

13. Stump-sprouting (coppicing) of bigleaf maple- After felling during clearcutting of Douglas-fir this bigleaf maple responded by producing stump sprouts (long or heterophyllous shoots). Coppice is the term applied to production of new shoots from stumps or roots. The stump shoots of this maple were being heavily browsed by Columbia black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) as was obvious in this photograph. It is early stages of the rotation that Pacific Douglas-fir forest vegetation is most useful as range. This is true for both browse and herbaceous feed. Pacific Douglas-fir produced under the clearcutting silvicultural method tends to be mostly transitory forest range.

Coast Ranges province. Benton County, Oregon. June.

14. Stump-sprouting (coppicing)of Oregon white oak- Following felling in a clearcutting operation of Pacific Douglas-fir forest this Oregon white oak produced long or heterophyllous shoots known generally as stump sprouts. A live stump capable of producing new shoots is known as a stool. These had been browsed by Columbia black-tailed deer. Clearcutting typically results in resprouting of younger deciduous trees and seedlings of other species that receive more light allowing survival of Intolerant and Intermediate species. This clearcut was in the Coast Ranges of western Oregon.

Benton County, Oregon. June.

15. Growing around the stump- Stump of Douglas-fir was surrounded by grasses and forbs "released" following clearcutting. Native blue wildrye as well as introduced (and now naturalized) orchardgrass and tall fescue were at peak standing crop along the perimeter of a clearcut Douglas-fir forest. Recovery of post-harvest herbaceous vegetation was more rapid along edges of the clearcut where there was less soil disruption. More disturbance of soil and land surface, including prescribed fire for slash reduction, improved seedbed conditions for natural regeneration of Douglas-fir and facilitated tree replanting. Coast Range forest.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

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16. Blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus) on a Pacific Douglas-fir clearcut- First photograph showed a stand of blue wildrye along perimeter of a clearcut in the Oregon Coast Ranges that was "released" as result of tree harvest. Second photograph was of the spike inflorescence of blue wildrye.

Benton County, Oregon. June. Peak standing crop.

17. Four-year-old clearcut of Pacific Douglas-fir- This clearcut in the Oregon Coast Ranges had been replanted to Pacific Douglas-fir that was well-established and "on its way". Prescribed burning for slash-reduction was part of site preparation. In the operations of site preparation and re-establishment of the tree crop in conjuction with ongoing secondary plant succession substantial amounts of browse were being produced. The major browse species on this clearcut was salal (Gaultheria shallon). Bigleaf maple and Oregon white oak also produced abundant browse.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

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18. Two views of a four-year-old clearcut of Pacific Douglas-fir in the Oregon Coast Ranges- Clearcutting followed by slash-reduction fire and replanting of Douglas-fir had this regenerating forest on its way to producing the next wood crop. Like wheat pasture prior to grain production this forest was producing an abundant crop of browse that was being utilized by Columbia black-tailed deer. Salal was the major browse species but others, including bigleaf maple and Oregon white oak, were making major contributions toward a secondary and complementary crop of wildlife. The tremendous crop of salal browse and the relatively high utilization of this browse was evident in the first slide.

These two slides provided a textbook example of two main benefits of clearcutting as a silvicultural method. Pacific Douglas-fir was being readily established and substantial quantities of browse were being produced for populations of range animals thereby enabling game species to increase also. Furthermore, the browsing (by black-tailed deer in this instance) benefitted the wood crop. Defoliation of non-crop plants like salal and nonbrowsing of Douglas-fir reduced competition for growth-requiring resources (light in particular) by young Douglas-fir thereby allowing these trees to grow faster and produce more stumpage per acre. This relationship was very noticable in the second slide.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-Oregon white oak/salal association (salal not shown in Kagan et al., 2004).

19. Salal (Gaultheria shallon)- Detail of leaves and fruit of salal, a major browse plant in the Pacific Northwest. Salal is in the Ericaceae, heath or heather family, which is one of the major families of browse plants across much of the Western Range and especially of forest ranges.

Lincoln County, Oregon. June.

20. Tree farm model- Exterior view of a 42-year-old Pacific Douglas-fir plantation in the Oregon Coast Ranges. This stand (featured in these and the next two slides) and the next stand (shown in the two slides following ones just noted) of Pacific Douglas-fir were plantations. The Society of American Foresters defined plantation as "a stand composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding" but plantations may have tree or understorey species that have established by natural regeneration. Plantations may consist of one species (pure stand) or several species (mixed stand) and they may have uniform or diverse structure and age classes. Plantations may be grown at various rotations ranging from short (for pulp or biomass) to indefinite in case of some aesthetic values (Helms, 1998).

The term (and concept) of tree farm has both generic and specific meanings as recognized by the Society of American Foresters. In general tree farm refers to "a privately owned woodland in which the production of wood fiber is a primary management goal ..."; in a strict sense Tree Farm is a registered trademark applied to a tree farm that is certified by the American Tree Farm System (Helms, 1998). Examples of both this and the next Douglas-fir plantation fit both definitions. They were presented as examples of such.

Tree farm in either sense carries the connotation-- perhaps inherent in the definition-- that because tree farm forests are to a degree artificial and less natural vegetation they are each less of a forest in the plant community sense. Indeed it could be argued that given the agronomic (field crop)-like nature, structure, etc. of tree farms (and Tree Farms) they more closely approach populations than communities. This would be most true for monocultures such as those of Pacific Douglas-fir. Unlike most field crops that are literally single-species populations as a result of weed control, even the most intensively managed tree farm (Tree Farm) soon supports several to many other plant species, at least in the understorey. Weed trees may be controlled but typically shrubs and herbaceous species are present in substantial abundance.

Nonetheless, much of the discussion (debate) of the "New Forestry" (and of the more intensive, artificial model of industrial forestry) hinges on the presence of more species (both plant and animal) in and more varied structure of the forest as a community rather than as a "field of trees". This is of course more true with regard to public forests than to private forests (or tree farms).

The tree farm as a management and production model of industrial forestry does support the underlying "article of faith" of Forestry: trees can be grown and harvested as a wood crop on a sustainable basis.

Starker Forest, Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

21. Textbook example of the tree farm model forest- A 42-year-old Pacific Douglas-fir plantation in the Oregon Coast Ranges. Students should observe that even though this was a tree monoculture there was a pronounced and varied understorey, and an understory capable of being grazed. In other words four decades into a rotation there was still a grazable understorey in this tree farm forest. Even under rather intensive and artificial management (to a rather large degree) this was still forest range. Based on the definitions and classification of grazing lands given by Vallentine (2001, p. 11) this transitory range was medium-term grazing land.

The dominant grass in the understorey was the blue wildrye, but introduced cool-season grasses and wooly vetch were also common. Blackberry (Rubus spp.), bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and sword fern were also present in abundance. In many local areas bracken fern occurred almost exclusively. Douglas-fir/bracken fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

Starker Forest, Benton County, Oregon. June.

22. Vegetation of a Pacific Douglas-fir plantation- Interior of a 42-year-old Douglas-fir stand in Oregon's Coast Ranges managed by tree farm practices. Major species of the grazable understorey were given in the preceding caption. It should be noted that even with relatively high tree density there was a well-developed herbaceous understorey available for grazing.

Starker Forest, Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/bracken fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

23. Pacific Douglas-fir plantation in Oregon Coast Ranges- A 30-35-year-old Douglas-fir plantation stand with lower stocking or stand density than that of the plantation shown in the two immediately preceding slides. Interesting, however, with fewer trees per area and less crown cover (compare the two stands) this understorey was dominated by a single species, sword fern. This large forb is typically a major component of climax forest vegetation, but it also returns quickly following forest harvest and replanting even with clearcutting. There was less forage and browse in this plantation than in the one viewed previously that grew in relatively close proximately to the present plantation. There was a difference in forest site, especially with regards slope.

Starker Forest, Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/hazelnut-snowberry/sword fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

24. Pacific Douglas-fir plantation- Another view of a 30-35 year old Douglas-fir plantation in the Oregon Coast Ranges. This stand had relatively low stocking and an understorey that was largely herbaceous and dominated by sword fern. Bracken fern was also common. Wild ginger (Asarum caudatum) grew plentifully in local spots. The most common shrubs were salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) and California or beaked hazelnut (Corylus californica= C. cornuta var. californica).

Starker Forest, Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/hazelnut-snowberry/sword fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

25. Natural regeneration of Pacific Douglas-fir on cutover land- Cutover land simply refers to forest land that has had the trees growing on it "cut" (felled, logged, or whatever). Cutover or logged-over forest often often carries the conntation that the forest was not reforested by man or did not regenerate naturally but instead has remained nonforested. Forest logged by "cut-and-run" practices prior to the conservation ethic and advent of scientific management methods of modern forestry is an image often conjured.

The land in the foreground of these photographs had been used as cutover pasture for a number of years following logging. Following abandonment of the cutover land for pasture natural regeneration of Douglas-fir by seed from the uphill forests took place. The logged-over and heavily pastured forest was returning. This was an example of natural reforestation. At this stage of forest development there was a tremendous quantity of biomass produced by herbaceous plants, both native and naturalized (agronomic grasses and legumes), that was available as feed for grazing animals. Oregon Coast Ranges.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosuystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Kagan et al. (2004) did not provide an association for this seral stage.

26. Salvage-thinning operation in Pacific Douglas-fir in Oregon Coast Ranges- This 40-50 year-old stand of Douglas-fir was being selectively logged as a salvage cutting due to winter storm damage. An unusually cold and wet winter storm left snow and ice on trees that persisted for two weeks and was then followed by drenching rains. A high proportion of tree crowns were heavily damaged (some totally destroyed) so as to necessitate their removal (or let trees die and rot in the woods). Final result was a thinning operation as a timber stand improvement practice. The remaining trees will now grow faster under reduced competition.

Damages of this sort to the tree crop require an assessment by the forester to determine if partial harvest (selective harvest; uneven-age management) or complete harvest (clearcutting; even-age management) should be followed. In this instance the forester was following the former but with a "wait-and-see" attitude. The remaining standing trees were "not out of the woods yet".

Openings in the previously closed canopy of this stand of Pacific Douglas-fir will allow light to reach the forest floor and permit subsequent redevelopment of an understorey that will produce browse and forage for range animals.

Benton County, Oregon. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Douglas Fir Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir/hazelnut-snowberry/sword fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

27. Olympic Peninsula landscape of industrial forestry- The Olympic Peninsula has growing conditions so favorable for coniferous forests that it supports some of the highest-yield commercial forestry on Earth. The potential natural vegetation of the Olympic Peninsula is a complex of Sitka spruce (Picea sitkensis), western hemlock, western redcedar, and Pacific Douglas-fir rincluding the following Kuchler units: K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest), K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir forest), K-4 (Fir-Hemlock Forest), and K-14 (Western Spruce-Fir Forest). The first two units are the major (largest) ones.

It was emphasized in introduction of this section that most of the commercial forests in the Olympic Peninsula as in the Coast Ranges and Cascades have been managed primarily to produce lumber from Pacific Douglas-fir. Some industrial forests are mixtures of Douglas-fir and western hemlock. There are some where western hemlock is the crop tree (at least the major one) and even other commercial forests that are western redcedar-western hemlock mixtures. Mostly however it is Pacific Douglas-fir that is "king" on par with King Corn or King Cotton of other agricultural regions.

The landscape shown here was clearly an agricultural (denoting crop-- food-fiber-- production) one of managed forests and not of virgin vegetation. Clearcuts and forests managed by other silvilcultural methods dominatd this raven's-eye view of biologically productive and economically valuable forestland.

Some of the silvicultural systems (= regeneration methods) used in the Olymmpic Peninsula were presented below.

28. Seed tree method in Pacific Douglas-fir- On this Olympic Peninsula industrial forest the seed tree regenertion method was being used in a stand of Pacific or Coastal Douglas-fir. The seed tree method is one of the even-aged regeneration methods (along with clearcutting and shelterwood methods). Seed tree regeneration consist of "the cutting of all trees except for a small number of widely dispersed trees retained for seed production and to produce a new age class in fully exposed microenvironment ... seed trees are usually removed after regeneration is established" (Helms, 1998).

The scarified soil and removal of tree canopy will allow the rapid development of a seral forest community consisting of herbaceous plants along with seedlings of Douglas-fir (plus some other conifer species) and hardwood shrubs. This herbage and browse production will soon be a "boon" to range animals (wildlife and/or livestock depending on choice of the land owner or operator).

Slash, tree residue such as tops and branches remaining on the ground following harvest or natural downing, was piled for future burning to facilitate tree planting (probably mechanical). Slash piling also makes more space available for more trees on this productive forest site. In fact, surface burning will likely be part of site preparation if it poses no threat to seed trees. These practices result in soil scarifiction, "mechanical removal of competing vegetation or interfering debris, of disturbance of the soil surface" (Helms, 1998). Certain tree species, especially seral species like Douglas-fir, regenerate best, and in fact often require, on scarified soil. Unsightly as this disturbance may appear to the uninitiated it is important, if not essential, for establishment for the next generation (the next crop) of Douglas-fir.

These views of the seed tree regeneration method were soon after logging operations. Root sprouting of angiosperm trees and shrubs had already begun as had germination of pioneer herbaceous species. Development of a forest range plant community was underway. Secondary succession was taking place.

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Pacific Douglas-fir was the crop, but this species was subclimax to this potential natural forest community so: Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

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29. Regeneration of Pacific Douglas-fir forest by the seed tree method- "Fast forward" a few years (say, three to five) from the beginning of a rotation by the seed tree method as shown in the two preceding photographs and this is the state of forest vegetation that exist. Immediately down a state highway from the previous scene this view awaited the student of succession and forest range. A kaleidoscope of species-rich vegetation had recently arisen on a Douglas-fir forest in the Olympic Peninsula under seed tree regeneration.

Herbaceous species varied from bracken fern to native grasses like blue wildrye and various bromegrasses like Alaska brome (Bromus sitchensis), Pacific brome (B. pacificus) and Columbia brome(B. vulgaris) to introduced grasses such as reed canarygrass (Calamagrostis arundinacea), timothy (Phleum pratense), redtop (Agrostis rubra), and creeping foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus). Forbs included various composites such as goldenrod (Solidago sp) to the ever-present fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium).

Among woody plants, regeneration of Douglas-fir, the crop species, was obvious. Other tree (or shrub) species included red alder (Alnus rubra), bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata) and bigleaf maple. The most common shrubs overall were species of blackberry (Rubus spp.), but at local scale salal formed closed patches. California hazelnut was also plentiful in local spots.

Range feed was in abundance. Bring on the cows and the deer.

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Pacific Douglas-fir as the crop species was subclimax such that potnetial natural vegetation was Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

30. Range vegetation on Douglas-fir forest under seed tree regeneration- Seral forest vegetation on the Olympic Peninsula that had developed under the seed tree regeneration method within a few years following logging provided a diverse selection of forage and browse species on this transitory range.

This was another form of the seed treem regeneration method. Rather than leaving widely spaced individual trees, groups of seed trees were left unharvested to furnish seed for reproduction of Pacific Douglas-fr. Sometimes such seed tree groups are left on fragile local spots that are more vulnerable to erosion, that protect springs or seeps, or that furnish cover for wildlife. As is the case for all seed trees those in these groups may be harvested after regeneration has taken place or, alternatively, some or all of them may be left unharvested to meet other goals or objectives. This latter modified regeneration method is one form of a two-aged method (stands have two age classes) known as seed tree with reserves (Helms, 1998).

Plant species present were those listed in the immediately preceding capiton. Fireweed was even more abundant here. Fireweed is one of the major pioneer plants quickly populating habitats created by disturbances like logging or, especially, fire (hence, fireweed). The conspicuous DWC (Damn White Composite) was the Eurasian weed known as oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum= Leucanthemum vulgare).

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. FRES No. 20(Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (PacificDouglas-fir). This crop tree species was subclimax in this biotic community so from perspective of climax or potential natural vegetation this was Western Hemlock Series in Oregon Coastal Conifer Forest regional formation or biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

31. Recovery of forest vegetation (and development of transitory forest range) under seed tree regeneration- Detail of a seral plant community that was developing on an Olympic Peninsula commercial Douglas-fir forest under seed tree regeneration. Reproduction of Pacific Douglas-fir was conspicuous as was availability of various herbaceous species for livestock and wildlife forage. The dominant herbaceous species was the pioneer forb, fireweed. Bracken fern is a ubiquous species hereabouts and this regenerating forest was no exception. Much of the herbage was the production from introduced, perennial, cool-season European grasses that have now naturalized to become permanent members of the regional vegetation. Such grass species included redtop, timothy, reed canarygrass, and creeping foxtail. Most of these seral herbs-- both native and naturalized-- do not persist in any appreciable quantities into the climax forest, but there will be no climax forest under management for Pacific Douglas-fir (itself a seral species by and large). Woody angiosperms that were visible in this slide were bigleaf maple and salal. This woody species will persist until later in the sere. Bigleaf maple is a climax species

This is transitory forest range and there will be species available for grazaing and browsing use for several decades into the future.

The young Douglas-fir in front of a Douglas-fir stump from the last generation exemplified the sustainability of forests as renewable natural resources under wise use and scientific management.

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Pacific Douglas-fir as the crop species was subclimax in this potential natural community so from climax perspective this was Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

32. Regenertion of Pacific Douglas-fir on a transitory range under seed tree regeneration- Here in the Olympic Peninsula Pacific Douglas-fir is the "king crop". Main crops often function as secondary crops and provide important by-products. Just as small grains often furnish excellent small grains pasture in early parts of their life cycle so do lumber crop species like Dougls-fir provide pasture in early stages of succession, the life cycle of vegetation. Use of transitory natural grazingland furnished by Douglas-fir forests is compatable with-- in fact, complementary to-- production of wood products. Both lumber and range-- as feed for livestock and as feed, cover, and general habitat for wildlife-- are forest products.

This "photo-plot" of forest vegetation was farther along in the sere than those presented above. Douglas-fir were larger and more plentiful, but the same species of grasses, forbs, and shrubs were still available for grazing and browsing range animals. Bigleaf maple, along with red alder, bitter cherry, and California hazelnut, were larger and more common. Naturalized Eurasian grasses like redtop, timothy, and creeping foxtail were still abundant as was the opportunistic fireweed.

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cewdar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). The crop of Pacific Douglas-fir was subclimax in the climax Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

33. Ground-level look at Pacific Douglas-fir vegetation under seed tree regeneration- Development of an Olympic Peninsula Douglas-fir forest a few grwoing seasons following logging and subsequent reproduction of the Douglas-fir lumber crop. Rotting slash (crop residue) from the last tree crop made contributions to the seedbed for the next crop. This debris (detritis, litter or organic residue from dead plant and animal tissue, in the ecosystem vernacular) provided organic matter and recycled minerals back to the soil, provided sites for seed germination and even sequestered carbon to help with the global warming (if indeed there is global warming).

The intensive management practices such as shorter rotations used in industrial forestry speed up the natural rate of certain ecosystem functions such as mineral cycling. Such practices also increase opportunities for establishment of some species like Douglas-fir and seral shrubs (red alder, bitter cherry) as well as imporving habitat for certain animal species like native and domestic ruminants. On the other hand, there is no place in the rotation of commercial Douglas-fir for old-growth or even later seral stage forest. The latter condition is to the detriment of other plant and animal spceies such as cavity nesting birds and mammals.

Important browse plants like bigleaf maple and salal were common in this vegetation along with bracken fern, salmonberry, and regenerated Douglas-fir. Native and naturalized grass species listed previously were common.

Washington State Trust Lands, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). On this site and in this area the Pacific Douglas-fir forest cover type was subclimax within climax Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

34. Embodiment of industrial forestry- This plantation (monoculture) of Pacific Douglas-fir was 17 years old and well on its way to producing the next lumber crop. On highly productive forest sites and under climate affable to fast-growing conifers like Douglas-fir forest "fields" like this optimize management effeciency with the goal of profit maximization. The benefit to society as wood consumers, taxpayers, and other stakeholders is a stable, steady supply of wood at affordable prices with protection of basic natural resources and minimum subsidy to forest owners: in a now-popular term, sustainable agriculture (or, more specifically, the concept of sustainable forestry or sustainable forest management..

Without going into the myriad meanings and nuances of the professional term this stand of Douglas-fir embodies the essence of sustained yield, "the yield that a forest can produce continuously at a given intensity of management" with the implication of achieving "...at the earliest practical time a balance between increment and cutting" (Helms, 1998). Really gung-ho students should study the concept of sustainable forest management in this same official reference (Helms, 1998). They can then decide for themselves how close or how far industrial forests like the one shown here comply with this emerging concept of conservation.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Industrial Pacific Douglas-fir was subclimax to the climax Western Hemlock Series in the Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

35. The forest products industry is a generative not an extractive industry- This 18-year-old plantation of Olympic Peninsula Pacific Douglas-fir (aided by the informative, if public relations-aimed, sign) provided a textbook illustration of the biological and social reality that forest and most of their related resources are in part or in total renewable (= flow) natural resources and not nonrenewable (= stock) natural resources. Forests can be wisely used to provide many products ("goods and services") to people as individuals and as a civilization. Industrial forests strive to optimize production of wood so as to maaximize profit for the firm over the long run.

Other forms of forest management and successional stages of forests provide other products and aminities to other people as well as to Mother Nature herself. Some of these other expressions of Forestry were presented below. For now industrial forestry and provision of native grazinglands under this forest management were considered. A combination of these categories of forest (from intensively managed industrial forests to preserved old-growth forests with minimal impact by man) provide an optimum of selections to meet human needs as made possible by Mother Nature and guided by Adam Smith's "invisible hand".

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 229 (Pacific Douglas-fir). Commercial forests of Pacific Douglas-fir in this area were subclimax to the potential natural Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

36. Thinned plantation of Pacific Douglas-fir and western hemlock in the Olympic Peninsula- Commercial production of the native and seral Douglas-fir is perhaps the cause celebrae of managing vegetation and ecosystems at subclimax stage for purposes of higher yield and greater primary productivity. If the sere in this part of the Olympic Peninsula was allowed to progress through plant succession to the climax forest it would include western hemlock and western redcedar as climax dominants with the long-lived Douglas-fir from seral stages "hanging on" as a component of the potential natural vegetation.

It was repeatedly explained throughout this section that Douglas-fir was the "tree of choice" for biologically based economic reasons (ie. it produces an economic commodity, namely lumber, faster and more profitably than the other tree species). There are instances, however, when other tree species are also economically valuable and are therefore produced under industrial forest management, often along with Douglas-fir.

Western hemlock is one of these species, often because it is abundant enough with Pacific Douglas-fir at earlier stages in forest development so as to be another dominance type. The most important of these cover types is the Douglas-fir-Western Hemlock cover type (SAF 230) in which these two species are co-dominants with western redcedar as associate species. In other words, this forest cover type more closely approaches the climax vegetation.

The plantation shown here was a mixture of Pacific Douglas-fir and western hemlock with the former making up more of the stocking. This stand had been thinned recently and even with older and larger trees there was an abundant understorey that produced feed available to range animals. Most of this was browse of various kinds of huckleberry (Vaccinium spp). Bracken fern and salal appeared to be the other more abundant species (those furnishing more biomass in lower layers of the vegetation).

This stand of timber also provided an opportune time to underscore one of the major changes in forest management over the last several decades. Within the lifetime of extant foresters the rotation of Pacific Douglas-fir has been incrementally reduced from 80 years to 60 years and now down to 40 years. Some of this can be attributed to tree breeding and development of faster-growing selections. Some of it is undoubtedly due to sociopoliticoeconomic conditions. Recent fears-- founded or not-- of governmental intervention on private forestlands and in the lumber market to preclude logging of forest with larger trees has likely been one of many factors.

Anyone who has paid any attention to the size of logs on Kenworths headed to the mill has noticed the trend to smaller-diameter logs. Some of this undoubtedly reflects less logging of old-growth and late seral forests (for one reason there have been fewer such forests over course of the last few years). For other reasons, including the lumber market itself, harvest at younger ages and smaller sizes "made cents". Nonetheless, it would seem that the mills are butchering veal instead of letting trees grow into beef (ie. logging trucks are hauling poles not logs). Com'on boys, let 'im grow up!

With shorter rotations and smaller trees being harvested the state of transitory forest range, the length of time or portion of the rotation that there is forest herbage and/or browse available to range animals, will only become longer and a greater increment of the time needed to grow the wood crop. Looking at a forest with comparatively larger trees (such as those shown here) and that still has a range understorey suggested to this author that the transitory forest range may become permanent forest range except for brief periods following more frequent harvest.

Olympic National Forest, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem). K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 230 (Pacific Douglas-fir-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formaion of Brown et al. (1998). Douglas-fir-western hemlock/salal association of Kagan et al. (2004).

37. Forests in the Olympic Mountains- The Olympic Mountains are some of the more prominent geologic features of the Olympic Peninsula landscape. The valleys, slopes, and peaks of the Olympic Mountains have three major forms of forest: 1) inland, lowland forests of western hemlock-western redcedar (with some Douglas-fir), 2) montane forests, the climax of which are dominated by western hemlock with Douglas-fir as an associate (and no western redcedar), and 3) subalpine forest dominated by subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). A fourth major forest form of the Olympic Peninsula is the coastal temperate rainforest of Sitka spruce-western hemlock-bigleaf maple. The lowland and montane forests of the mountains coincide approximately with Kuchler unit 2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). The subalpine forest coincides with Kuchler unit 4 (Fir-Hemlock Forest) while the coastal temperate rainforest is Kuchler unit 1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). Kuchler also recognized a Western Spruce-Fir Forest (K-14) on the Olympic Peninsula.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June.

38. Lowland western redcedar-dominated forest- This particular form of the general western redcedar-western hemlock lowland forest was a unique swampy site typified by the more mesic western redcedar with an understorey dominanted by the forb, western skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanum) (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 81). Conifer regeneration was primarily western redcedar with some western hemlock in the more open and drier microsites. This was the climax forest vegetation for this site.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 228 (Western Redcedar). Western Redcedar Association of Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998); association designation added by author of this caption. Western red cedar/skunk cabbage association of Kagan et al. (2004).

39. Inside a western redcedar lowland forest- Around the base of two old-growth western redcedars was an understorey of several layers and consisting of both shrubs and herbaceous species (all forbs). California hazelnut was to left and front of tree trunks while Devil's club (Oplopanax horridus) was represented by a small plant in right foreground (compare to other photographs below). Common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) and bracken fern were obvious in foreground as were two individuals of western skunkcabbage (also shown in detail below). This old-growth forest is the climax vegetation on this swamp-like site.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 228 (Western Redcedar). Western Redcedar Association of Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998); association added by writer of this photograph caption. Western red cedar/skunk cabbage association of Kagan et al. (2004).

40. Interior of a western redcedar phase or form of Olympic Peninsula lowland forest- Western hemlock and western redcedar are codominant on most of the interior lower climax forest zone of the Olympic Mountains, but on this swampy site western hemlock was an associate to the more mesic western redcedar. Overall or general understorey dominant was Devil's club. While Devil's club was the dominant shrub, western skunkcabbage was the dominant forb and though this forb had less cover and appeared to use fewer resources it was the defining or distinguishing understorey plant species. Climax vegetation.

An opening (gap) in the forest canopy seen in the background of this photograph supported red alder in shrub form and size.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 228 (Western Redcedar). Western Redcedar Association of Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998); association added by author of this photograph caption. Western red cedar/devil's club association of Kagan et al. (2004).

41. Interior of a western redcedar form of the Olympic Mountains (interior) lowland climax forest- Layers of vegetation in climax forest on a narrow strip of a swamp-like site of lowland forest on the Olympic Peninsula. There were two prominent age classes of western redcedar: 1) mature trees (old-growth) and 2) pole-size trees that formed a lower tree layer. Most conifer regeneration was western redcedar. Below the lower tree layer was a shrub layer dominated by Devil's club. An herbaceous layer consisted of western skunkcabbage, common horsetail, bracken and other ferns as well as miscellaneous forest forbs. Climax forest vegetation.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 228 (Western Redcedar). Western Redcedar Association of Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998); association designation added by author of this caption. Western red cedar/devil's club association of Kagan et al. (2004).

42.Devil's club (Oplopanax horridus)- General understorey dominant and dominant shrub of a western redcedar climax lowland forest on Olympic Peninsula. The first photograph was of the inflorescence of Devil's club. The second photograaph showed the cluster of immature cluster fruit at shoot apex of Devil 's club. In spite of its "put-the-fear-of-God-in your-heart" intimidating name and threatening spines on shoot and leaf petioles Devil's club is much less apt to put scratches on human skin than other species like blackberry.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June.

43. Western or yellow skunk cabbage (Lysichiton americanum)- This member of the arum or philodendron family has some of the largest leaves of any plant in the Pacific Northwest. It is one of the most "photogenic" of all the western forest and range forbs.The individual flowers on this large forb are small and are on a spike atop a large flsehy stalk all of which is a spadix. .Subtending (below) and partly surrounding the spadix is a bract or modified leaf designated as a spathe.The yellow-colored, conspicuous spathe of skunk cabbage appears early in the spring (sometimes before regular leaves) and gives this species its other common name of swamp latern. The spathe is shed soon after blooming of the small flowers and hence was not present in the photographs presented here.

The second slide showed the spadix with immature fruit and the veination of the large leaves that were as beautiful as many flowers.The name skunk cabbage comes from the distinctive strong odor (supposedly remeniscent of a polecat) given off during flowering. This probably attracts insect pollinators.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June.

44.Climax western hemlock forest- Two views of old-growth western hemlock forest with regeneration of both this species and some of the associate species, western redcedar. These two conifers are rated as Very Tolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 3) and are typically co-dominants, but in this location they had segregated within a short distance of each other with western redcedar on the wet site just shown and western hemlock on a drier upslope site where it produced this fine stand.

Olympic National Park, Clallam County, Washington. June. RES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 224 (Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998). Western hemlock-(red cedar)/devil's club/ sword fern association of Kagan et al. (2004).

45. A tree-hugger's worst nightmare (so two shots were included for good measure)- Fresh (still bleeding) clearcut of second-growth western redcedar-western hemlock (Douglas-fir was minor component) forest in Olympic Peninsula. The aftermath was piles of slash plus remaining slash and other litter on soil surface (and even a few cull poles or small logs for firewood). This site has such high potential for timber production that all available space will be used to grow trees. Burning of slash will be part of site preparation.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 227 (Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

46.Scene of destruction (but also of regeneration)- Another view of the fresh clearcut of western redcedar-western hemlock second-growth forest in the Olympic Peninsula. At edge of a small clearcut with deep slash of dead trees among stumps of recently living wood there was new life emerging to continue the successional cycle of the forest. Sprouts of salal, red alder, and bigleaf maple were already appearing to provide browse for range animals (at least until burning as part of site preparation set them back so they could grow the second time). Some of the rot-resistant redcedar stumps were from the prior cutting.

This small clearcut will naturally regenerate to the climax western redcedar and western hemlock as shown in the next four slides.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 227 (Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

47. Regeneration of climax conifers on forest range of a clearcut in Olympic Peninsula- Climax (and Very Tolerant) western redcedar and western hemlock were established on this former clearcut. This was more evident in the second slide of these two. Simultaneously (actually somewhat before) there was a tremendous growth of numerous hardwood (angiosperm) shrub and tree species.This development was presented in the first of the two slide. Red alder, bittercherry, salal, bigleaf maple, red huckleberry, a species of currant (Ribes sp), and various Rubus species were among the hardwood species (and that were availabld as browse). There was even a naturalized foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) for a touch of color in the brush.

It was noteworthy (and a most interesting lesson in secondary succession) that even with the apparent severe disturbance of clearcutting the climax dominant conifers and bigleaf maple (Very Tolerant species) came back in early seral stages. Seral species like red alder and fireweed were, of course, also present in early stages of sere development, but interestingly the successional vegetation of a wesetern redcedar-western hemlock forest was a mixture of seral (including pioneer) and climax plant species.

This phenomenon coupled with the Very Wet precipitation zone ( up to 160 inches, 16 feet, of liquid moisture) made for fast recovery. This is one timber-growing son of a gun!

Clallam County, Washington, June. FRES 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 227 (Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest of Brown et al. (1998).

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48. Second-growth western redcedar and western hemlock (climax) forest in Olympic Peninsula- On the other side of a highway from the regenerating clearcut shown in the two immediately slides was this more advanced regenerating forest on a another former clearcut.

The first photogarph was a general exterior view of the second-growth, clearcut forest showing reproduction of both western redcedar and western hemlock. There was a small clearing in foreground and many understorey species like those listed for the clearcut across the road were present here also. The second, and closer-in, photograph showed more detail of the second-growth forest. Look at the redcedar stump. Trees of the climax western redcedar and western hemlock that ranged in size from poles to small logs had established before the stump from the previous logging had rotted. This was a function of both the slow rate of decay of western redcedar wood and the rapid rates of forest recovery and timber growth.One timber-growing son of a gun.

Look again at the redcedar stump. Notice all of the seedlings and resprouts of vine maple (Acer circinatum) and bigleaf maple that were available for browsing range animals was well as for replacaement of this climax hardwood species. This forest range cover type is an amazingly resilent ecosystem. Water-- and lots of it-- with a mild, moderating temperature regimen and fertile soil are a lumberman's dream come true.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 227 (Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

49. Industrial forest of western hemlock in Olympic Peninsula- This commercial stand of mostly western hemlock was being weeded and thinned (just like hoeing corn or cotton except the crop plants are bigger). Western redcedar and the smaller and/or more crowded western hemlock were being harvested. Redcedar was being sawed into blocks

Finally the lumber of the two climax trees (especially western hemlock) was becoming appreciated so that these two native dominants were no longer viewed strictly as weed trees. Pacific Douglas-fir had lost some-- though not much-- of its monopoly in industrial forestry in the Pacific Northwest. Ths served as a textbook example of how economics and other social factors shape forest policy and how a free market responds to humn needs. Students were reminded again of the common root of Ecology and Economics.

Your range professor once again directed your attention to the browsable understorey. Even with climax trees of this size and stocking there were various shrub species (especially Vaccinium spp.) that formed a well-developed woody layer of vegetation available to range animals. There was also a partial herbaceous layer formed mostly of ferns. Thinning and soil disturbance would be expected to make a more favorable environment for other herbaceous species as well as the estblished shrubs.

Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 20 (Douglas-fir Forest Ecosystem), but too general to be meaningful here. K-2 (Cedar-Hemlock-Douglas-fir Forest). SAF 227 (Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock). Western Hemlock Series in Oregonian Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

Olympic Peninsula Temperate Rainforest

One of the most productive forest on Earth (whether measured as primary productivity, biomass, or board feet) is the a Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest (SAF 225). The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) interpreted this cover type as subclimax in which true firs (Abies spp.) are climax with western hemlock, but Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 64-67) concluded that the typically subclimax Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) appears to be climax in a few of the river valleys (on river terraces) in the extremely high rainfall belts of the coastal side of the Olympic Mountains (rain shadow areas). This conclusion was consistent with the recognition by Kuchler (1964, 1966) of the potential natural vegetation he identified as Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest (K-1) and designation/description by Garrison et al. (1977) of FRES Ecosystem 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem).

Traditionally (perhaps sensationally in the popular nature press) this restricted but amazing, as well as complex and botanically diverse, forest community has been dubbed the "Olympic rain forest" often with the specific designation as a "temperate rain forest". Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 64-67) made a brief but specific review of the literature and conclusions of workers with this unique vegetation. In what remains the "bible" of natural vegetation in Oregon and Washington Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 67) concluded that the "Olympic rain forest" was "simply a vriant of the Picea sitchensis Zone" limited primarily to coastal river valleys and likely the ecological product of interactions of various factors including location on river terraces, soils, and feeding by Roosevelt elk (Cervis canadensis var. roosevelti= C. elaphus subsp. roosevelti). This variant interpretation was adopted in the Sitka Spruce forest cover type (SAF 223) description by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, 102).

Perhaps the best known and most famous of the "Olympic rain forest" areas in forest ecology circles (certainly the best publicized) is that of the Hoh River Valley. Your intrepid author/photographer was there and left ya'll with the memorable images shown below. All sensationalizing aside, the concept of "rain forest" was accepted and adopted herein by the current author based on vegetation physignomy and structure (including the numerous layers of vegetation), species diversity, photogenic features (including epiphyte-festooned trees, massive size of boles, trees growing on nurse logs), plus features cited by formal students of this vegetation.

The term "temperate rain forest" seemed to be a useful pedagogic handle. It was adopted here to convey the general notion of a productive, biologically diverse, and environmentally unique ecosysstem that had value as native grazing land. There did not seem to be any substantive conflict between the concept of "rain forest" and that of "a variant" of the Sitka spruce zone. It is a rain forest variant.

50.Olympic Peninsula temperate rain forest- Interior of a climax Sitka spruce-western hemlock-bigleaf maple coastal forest in the Hoh River Valley. Various layers of vegetation were obvious with a complex understorey that included an herbaceous ground layer of forbs the dominants of which were fern species, especially sword fern (Polystichum munitum). There were both lower and upper shrub layers. The larger shrub or small tree in center was a bigleaf maple. The dominant shrub was red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium) , but salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) and other Rubus species were common also. In addition to ferns there were other major forb species including redwood or Oregon sorrel (Oxalis oregana). Visible in background were saplings and poles of the climax dominants, Sitka spruce and western hemlock.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic commuity or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

51. Olympic Peninsula rain forest with young growth of co-dominant conifers- Co-dominant climax conifers of coastal Olympic Peninsula forest. Half trunk at extreme right margin and center trunk with moss were Sitka spruce; pole and log-size trunk at left were western hemlock. Regeneration of both species was evident in background. Most common shrub was red huckleberry. Ground cover species was redwood or Oregon sorrel.

Note kind and quantity of downed wood forming detritis and rapidly cycling nutrients between biomass and soil.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

52. Vegetation of Olympic Peninsula temperate rain forest- Interior of climax Sitka spruce-western hemlock-bigleaf maple Olympic Peninsula coastal forest. In this "photoplot" structure, especially pronounced layering, of forest vegetation was shown to give some representation of the biological diversity and productivity of this forest range ecosystem.

Big leaves at far left were on Devil's club (Oplopanax horridus). Large leaves in center midground were of bigleaf maple. Sword fern and Oregon sorrel were both common forbs and each could be viewed as a dominant of an herbaceous layer: Oregon sorrel of the ground or surface herb layer and sword fern of an upper herb layer. Largest bole (left midground) was Sitka spruce. Two side-by-side boles in center were western hemlock.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

53. "Ya.mean this is range!"- "You're mighty well told" (George Washington Wishbone of Rawhide fame). Yes gentleviewers this is prime habitat for the Roosevelt elk, usually interpreted as the largest subspecies of this stately cervid. It was mentioned in introduction of this section on the Olympic Peninsula rain forest that some features of this unique vegetation are likely the result of browsing by Roosevlt elk. Franklyn and Dyrness (1973, ps. 65-67) based their conclusions on elk exclosures and selective grazing of western hemlock seedlings by elk. Selective grazing by large herds of Roosevelt elk was one factor (among several others including overall climate) that shifted the competitive relationship between the two co-dominant conifers enough to allow Sitka spruce reproduction such that this usually subclimax conifer was interpreted as a climax species in this unique community (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, p. 67).

In this sample of vegetation Sitka spruce were represented by the two large trunks at left and right margins of photograph and by the largest tree in center. Western hemlock "representatives" were the trunk to right of largest tree (Sitka srruce) and the down log and the tree immediately to the right of this hemlock with a pronounced butt swell. Note also butt swell of largest Sitka spruce. Blazes (spots of chipped bark) on the center Sitka spruce were made by pileated woodpecker or wood hen (Dryocopus pileatus) that thrives on the abundance of wood-dwelling insects that in turn thrive on plentiful wood (living and dead) of this biomass-producing marvel of an ecosystem.

Oregon sorrel was the dominant forb and herbaceous species locally. Major shrubs were various species of huckleberry with red huckleberry most common. Devil's club was also plentiful locally. There was regeneration o both co-dominant climax conifers as well as the climax bigleaf maple.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

54.Reproducing in its own shade- Saplings of Sitka spruce and western hemlock had established beneath a mature and rather large Sitka spruce. Both of these co-dominant climax conifers (on terraces of certain coastal river valleys in the Olympic Peninsula) were rated as Very Tolerant by the Society of American Foresters standards (Wenger, 1984, p. 3). Typically Sitka Spruce is somewhat less so and generally regenerates best in local microhabitats created by disturbances that form openings (gaps) in the crown cover of climax forests. Observant students will have noticed the nearly rotted stump around which these saplings (again, of both climax dominants) were growing. Species of stump could not be identified in the field.

The understorey was mostly bracken fern with some scattered patches of Oregon or redwood sorrel.

55. Giant Sitka spruce in small forest opening- In the canopy of a Sitka spruce-western hemlock coastal climax forest a gap was created by some phenomenon (likely a disturbance such as windthrow) that created a microhabitat favorable to growth of this immense Sitka spruce. Franklin and Dyrness (1973, ps.65, 67) and Eyre (1980, p. 103) specified that individuals of Sitka spruce which attain immense size typically grew in openings or in stands of open canopies.

The dominant understorey herbaceous species was bracken fern which of course provides little or no forage and, in fact, is toxic (thaiminase is the poisonous principle). The dominant shrub was red huckleberry that was well-represented by the shrub adjacent (on left side) of the trunk of the spruce. Bigleaf maple was also present (visible as green leaves in a mid-layer to left of Sitka spruce bole at top of photograph). There was regeneration (roughly equal) of both Sitka spruce and western hemlock.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community or regional formation of Brown et al. (1998).

56. Nurse log- The nurse log phenomenon has been discussed in various works, as for example by Franklin and Dyrness (1973, ps. 60, 64, 65, 66, 297). Individuals of western hemlock appear to be especially adapted to germinate and often establish on rotting logs. There were at least three saplings of western hemlock that were thriving on this ancient log that was the rotting remains of a once-massive Sitka spruce. This was an example of the fact that western hemlock under most conditions of co-existence Sitka spruce is subclimax to the climax western hemlock. As discussed above the well-watered river valleys of the coastal Olympic Peninsula are an exception wwith both conifers climax and often co-cominant.

Hemlocks and spruces that germninated and developed to maturity on nurse logs usually retain a basal trunk and partial aboveground roots that bespeak their organic cradle. An example of this in Sitka spruce was shown below under coverage of Sitka Spruce cover type (SAF 223) in northern California.

Oregon or redwood sorrel was also growing on the spruce "carcass" (or forest duff atop it). Sword fern was growing around the "dead soldier". A small red huckleberry had established at right end of nurse log.

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest). SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998).

58. Little groves of bigleaf maple- Most maples (Acer spp) are generally tolerant species.and bigleaf maple is no exception having been rated as Tolerant by the Society of American Foresters (Wenger, 1984, p.4). In fact, bigleaf maple has been interpreted generally as an associate of the co-dominant Sitka spruce and western hemlock under certain conditions. One of the most photogenic and best- publicized examples of this has been the Olympic Peninsula temperate rainforest where "moss-festooned" bigleaf maples have often been featured more than even the massive Sitka spruce.(Perhaps such epiphyte-drapped trees put viewers in mind of human-like or ghostly figures lurking in the foggy forest of giant trees. Such botanically adorned bigleaf maples are the Pacific Northwest equivalent of the Desert Southwest giant saguaro that was featured elsewhere in this publication.)

Anyway, ecologically or poetically motivated, bigleaf maples were included here in an effort to provide more nearly complete coverage of this unique forest range cover type. Franklin and Dyrness (1973, ps. 66-67) cited unpublished work suggesting that these groves of bigleaf maple grew in the Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests on "local sites of shallow, sotny soil" on the second terrace of major rivers like the Hoh River.

Franklin and Dyrness (1973, p. 65-66) listed several common moss species that formed typical layers as well as listing epiphytic cryptogams. One of the most useful guides (complete with excellent photographs) to mosses (true mosses), clubmosses, liverworts, and lichens of the northern Pacific Coast was Pojar and MacKinnon (1994). Two of the more common and larger species of ephphytic mosses in the Olympic Peninsula rain forest were cat-tail moss (Isothecium myosuroides) and coiled-leaf moss (Hypnum circinale).

From perspective of native grazing land the shrub-size and resprouts-- and not mature, stately trees-- of bigleaf maple are the important range plants as the former furnish browse. Mature trees provide cover, but this seemed a mute point in this vegetation (and it would be cover as shelter from the sun and not the drenching rain which penetrates almost anything not man-made).

Hoh River Valley, Clallam County, Washington. June. FRES No. 24 (Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forest Ecosystem). K-1 (Spruce-Cedar-Hemlock Forest) . SAF 225 (Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce). Bigleaf Maple Association of Sitka Spruce-Douglas Fir Series in Sitka Coastal Conifer Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Association added by author of this caption.

59. Grove of red alder (Alnus rubra)- Within the Olympic Peninsula temperate rain forest (or, perhaps more precisely, immediately adjacent to it on the flood plain of major rivers) are single-tree species stands of red alder. Viewed in the context of primary succession the array of various forest communities of certain coastal or near-coastal river valleys that are a progression from flood plain through first terrace and risers (steep inter-terrace slopes) to second terrace, as described by Franklin and Dyrness (1973, ps, 66-67), is a toposequence rather than a chronosequence (Barbour et al., 1999, p. 274-276). Over temporal scale of geologic time however this could be viewed as chronosequential succession in the Clementsian monoclimax model.

No matter which way (or another way) this development of forest vegetation was visualized, red alder stands are native (though interpreted as seral) vegetation that is locally important as forest range. It was also important to understanding and obtaining a more comprehensive sense of the forests of the Olympic Peninsula. For these reasons the red alder forest cover type (SAF 221) was included at this point. It also served to visually or conceptually unite the Olympic Peninsula forests with those farther south in the Coast Ranges as presented immediately below the section on Olympic Peninsula forests.

The "bible" of Washington and Oregon native vegetation (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973, ps. 61-62, 66) also described red alder communities of the Picea sitchensis Zone as did the collection of forest cover types published by Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p. 100). These references described either single-species stands or tree and shrub associates. Neither source considered an herbaceous component or layer. In stark contrast the red alder stand shown here that was growing on the flood plain of the Hoh River consisted of no other woo