Willow & Riparian

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1. Riparian Willow Scrub Type- Along watercourses— especially mountain streams, creeks, and small rivers— from the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Ranges and even Pacific Slope drainages there are diverse range communities dominated by shrubs and small trees of the Salicaceae, typically willow (Salix spp.) and cottonwood or aspen (Populus spp.). Some of these riparian plant communities may be disclimaxes induced through disturbances such as overuse/overgrazing by livestock or wildlife like beaver (Castor canadensis) which concentrate along the watercourses. Other disturbances include logging and flooding (especially upstream) due to activities like road-building or hydraulic mining. Many of these salicaceous communities, however, are natural (= climax) vegetation. Willow scrub (of various forms) appears to be a riparian climax.

Strawberry River, Unita National Forest, Wasatch County, Utah. Vernal aspect, June. SRM 422 (Riparian) as a Great Basin Cover Type is general and quite variable but appears to describe the riparian willow shrubland range type. Also SRM 921 (Willow) Rangeland Cover Type of Alaska is the boreal equivalent of the riparian willow of Great Basin and western mountain streams. Grayleaf willow (Salix glauca) is one of the dominant low willows while Bebb willow (S. bebbiana) is a dominant tall willow. Both of these species occur in the Intermountain Region and along Utah streams (Welsh et al., 1993, ps. 628, 630). Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Swamp and Riparian Scrub biotic community or perhaps in Plains and Great Basin Riparian Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Colorado Plateau- Semiarid Benchlands and Canyons Ecoregion, 20c (Woods et al., 2001).

2. The willows are one of those taxonomic nightmares for all but veteran taxonomists. Welsh et al. (1993) described over two dozen species of Salix found in Utah. What is more Salix species hybridize readily. Viewers can have their choices as to species. This is a willow thicket pure and simple.Good definitive source on taxonomy of Salix is Newsholme (1992). Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Swamp and Riparian Scrub biotic community or perhaps Plains and Great Basin Riparian Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Colorado Plateau- Semiarid Benchlands and Canyons Ecoregion, 20c (Woods et al., 2001).Strawberry River, Unita National Forest, Wasatch County, Utah. Vernal aspect, June. All riparian sites are prone to damage by overgrazing/overbrowsing— especially by larger animals which tend to “hang in on water” —because of the availability of water and shade, fairly level terrain, congregation of fellow animals, etc. While the riparian habitat is ideal for high yields of browse and members of Salicaceae are well-adapted to it and to defoliation they can be overbrowsed (Despain, 1990, p. 82, 94, 98-101). This includes by wildlife. Despain (1990) discussed the impact of wildlife overbrowsing on willow and quaking aspen in Yellowstone National Park. Even his optimistic interpretation could not ignore the severe loss of wildlife browse in parts of  Yellowstone which should be a model of pristine environments, including riparian vegetation. Overuse of riparian vegetation remains a problem in National Parks where native predators are rare or absent. McName (1997, ps. 170-171) wondered if willow and quaking aspen would rebound if the wolf was reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park. Willows have the zig-zag or sympodial growth pattern in which the upper potion fo the leader is routinely aborted (Sosebee, 1977, p. 277). Proper degree of use is very critical in shrubs like willows because they have aboveground perenniating parts. It was discussed under forest grazing that most woody plants are phanerophytes which due to location of meristems are the growth or life form most vulnerable to defoliation. For utilization evaluation in shrubs see Interagency Technical Reference (1996). Not only can the riparian vegetation be damaged by long-term overutilization but prolonged concentration of animals can lead to physical damage to the geomorphological aspects of streams such as bank-caving. Chemical harm may occur by excessive deposites of dung and urine and high levels of coloform bacteria (ie. pollution). These combined effects can readily lead to degradation of the riparian range site, including damage to fish habitat (eg. loss of shaded banks needed for proper temperatures for eggs and fye). Under multiple-use management “writing-off” riparian ecosystems as sacrifice sites is no longer an acceptable practice. Some would argue that it was never proper management noting that turning creeks as sources of clean, fresh stock water into ditches of polluted, stagnant water is poor animal husbandry and an unacceptable practice from the standpoint of herd health. A comparison of damage to willows (and stream banks) by animal concentration versus reduction or elimination of animal concentration with resultant willow recovery was presented below in this willow series. Fortunately, this problem was recognized— belatedly but finally —and many conscientious stock-growers worked with conservationists like sportsmen and natural resource agencies to achieve proper animal distribution on ranges blessed with watercourses. Management of riparian range sites is extremely difficult from both the  physical/biological and economic standpoints because fencing streams is usually not cost-effective. Cross-fencing pastures having streams so as to reduce concentration of  livestock or duration of livestock concentration is more economically efficient but can also be expensive. Fencing may be used with specialized forms of grazing management to better manage distribution of animals and season of use. Changing season of use or changing kind or class of livestock is sometimes possible by better incorporating management of grazing units into total ranch management. Smaller ruminant species like sheep are more likely to rustle farther from water than larger ruminants like cattle. There are even breed differences within a species.  One of the most cost-effective (and romantic) ways to manage ranges containing delicate riparian sites is the time-tested use of range riders or sheep herders to herd livestock thereby achieving proper distribution of animals on range. This noble occupation traces its recorded lineage back through Abraham, Moses, David, the Good Shepherd, and Charlie Russells (and our own) Trail Boss. The most enduring of all American folk heroes is the cowboy. For the scientific approach to the art of herding livestock Moving ‘Em by Smith (1998) is highly recommended.

“My heroes have always been cowboys.”                                                                  —Willie Nelson

Now watch the ole range prof get in the Four Cardinal Principles of Range Management:        Proper Degree of Use        Proper Distribution of Use        Proper Season of Use         Proper Kind and Class of Range Animal.

The literature on range management on riparian ecosystems and riparian vegetation is seemingly infinite attesting to its importance. It is the one area where even the most die-hard anti-environmentalists agree on the need for inproved range management. Great strides have been made, including by the livestock industries. Continued effort in this as in all areas of management will be necessary. The following are recommended as a start in the literature of riparian range management: Myers (1989), Smith and Prichard (1992), Leonard et al. (1997), and Winward (2000). The range industry continues to carry many “success stories” on riparian range management.

3. Willow leaders- Twigs with pistillate catkins, leaves, bark, and buds of a tall Salix species. Salix species are dioecious. These are leaders of a female plant. The zig-zag pattern of twig growth in willow is obvious here. See the two aborted (dead and brown) leaders. Strawberry River, Unita National Forest, Wasatch County, Utah.

4.  Willow (Salix sp.) consociation- This stand of willow forms a simple riparian plant community comprising an aquatic or hydric vegetation cover type. The Natural Vegetation of Montana Outline recognized seven specific Salix species series as well as the generic “Salix species Series” which together constituted the “Deciduous alluvial shrubland (or thicket)” under the heading of “Scrub”. The designation of “Series” indicated that “there was not enough information to be reasonable sure” of the ecological status (ie. seral vs. climax) of the plant community. The Natural Vegetation of Montana Outline noted that this was “especially true for wetland sedge types and willow communities”. Either way, willow communities are often valuable for browse, watershed, and wildlife habitat (cover and shade as well as feed). Lolo National Forest, Missoula County, Montana. June. No FRES or K- Nos. SRM 422 (Riparian). SAF 235 (Cotton-Willow). Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Swamp and Riparian Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Middle Rockies- Bitterroot-Frenchtown Valley Ecoregion, 17s (Woods et al., 2002).

5. Black willow (Salix nigra) swamp- The black willows in this stand can be interpreted as either small trees or, given the multi-stemmed growth habit, large shrubs. They are in the backwater riparian zone of the West Branch of the Trinity River in the general Cross Timbers and Prairies Region of northcentral Texas. As noted above, the successional state or seral or climax is unknown and there is neither FRES nor Kuchler designation for willow, but this could be an example of a seral stage of the sycamore-pecan-American elm type as suggested by Garrison et al. (1977, ps. 15-16 ) which puts it in climax FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Ecosystem). Such a state would place this community as a seral stage of SAF 94 (Sycamore-Sweetgum-American elm), but SAF 95 (Black Willow) nails it perfectly at this stage. Cottonwood-Willow Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). The low-growing twigs are within easy reach of browsing white-tail deer and sign of beaver feeding on willow bark was common. Forth Worth Nature Refuge, Tarrant County, Texas. October. Cross Timbers- Grand Prairie Ecoregion, 29d (Griffith et al., 2004).

6. Black willow (Salix nigra)- Whole shoot of one black willow plant growing on pond dam in Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas. Typical habit of this multi-stemed large shrub or small tree. All members of the Salicaceae (willow or poplar family) are dioecious (separate male and female plants). This plant was a male. Staminate catkins of this specific plant were presented below. Erath County, Texas. April.

7. Some shoots of black willow- Several young trees or shrubs of black willow growing in the floodplain of the Wichita River. Wichita County, Texas. October.

8. Black willow flower- Staminate catkins of the black willow growing on pond dam in Grand Prairie in northcentral Texas (same plant) that was presented above. Willow species are dioecious (having separate male and female flowers on different plants; individual plants are either male or female). Erath County, Texas. April.

9. Willow thicket on wet subalpine mountain meadow- This savanna- or shrubland-like vegetation was composed of short-fruit or barren-ground or, sometimes-- and confusing--, grayleaf willow (Salix brachycarpa) and planeleaf or Nelson willow (S. planifolia) growing on a wet subalpine park (a mountain valley). Arguably this plant community could be viewed as a meadow in which case it should have been included under the Meadow heading of the Grasslands. It was specified in captions with slides of the strictly herbaceous form of vegetation in this valley (a Carex rostrata consociation) that the willow-dominated form of vegetation was included here to have the willow (and other wet shrublands) in one place and for consistency from standpoint of physiogonomy and growth/life forms of dominant plants. (Viewers who desire to follow the panarama of vegetation down this drainage or watershed, the Kawuneeche Valley in Rocky Mountain National Park, can do so by exiting down and going to the table of contents from which you should turn off at the Grasslands exit and follow it to the Meadows road down which you will come to beaked sedge-dominated wet meadow.) Viewers who stayed at this station will note the heavy degree of use of these willows by elk. Time, and response of willows to this intense defoliation, will tell if utilization was excessive (ie. overbrowsing-- if, in fact, this consumption was overbrowsing-- will eventually lead to death and inadequate regeneration of willows). These photographs were taken during the year (2002) of the most extreme drought in Colorado weather records. The drought certainly had some influence on the appearance of the willows and, in combination (perhaps synergistic) with heavy browsing, it may well have a major influence on whether or not willows survive to the next drought. At the current point in time and space readers can see a plant community with an upper storey of relatively large shrubs of willow and an herbaceous understorey of C. rostrata and some isolated individuals of Canada reedgrass or bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis). Isolated smaller shrubs of shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa= Pentaphylloides floribunda) were also present (as they were on the peaked sedge meadow). One of these plants of shrubby cinquefoil can be seen in the immediate, far left foreground of the second slide. It should be emphasized that this is not riparian vegetation per se. This form of willow shrubland-- and that presented immediately below-- was not wetland and, as such, was distinct from willow carrs and riparian corridors presented in this section. Kawuneeche Valley, Rocky Mountain National Park, Grand County, Colorado. June. No FRES when this is interpreted as a shrubland. No Kuchler units at this mapping scale (nor for that of montane meadows or riparian communities). No SRM cover type designation for willow except for Alaska: SRM 921 (Willow). Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Rockies- Chrystalline Subalpine Forests Ecoregion, 21b (Chapman et al., 2006)

10. Subalpine willow thicket- Willows, most likely barren-ground and planeleaf willows, formed a scrub patch around a localized seepage or drainage at the lower end of a small subalpine mountain meadow. This was not a wetland nor riparian vegetation, but it most certainly was a browse range on which the potential natural vegetation under existing climatic and edaphic conditions appeared to be climax shrubland, at least to this author. There was little or no understorey of vascular plants beneath the willows. The occurrence of willow-dominated vegetation on the lower end of a meadow that had the same species distributional pattern represented in the plant community immediately above. As in that similar-- perhaps, identical-- vegetation, browsing by elk had been heavy if not excessive. The latter could not be verified at this point. This was a good point at which to again warn readers of the danger inherent in the sin of overgrazing and overbrowsing. Wildlife are not immune nor exempt from overconsumption of feed on their ranges just because they are native species. Status as to "natural" or native or to wildlife versus domesticated or livestock (elk are either depending on the intensity with which they are managed) is meaningless whenever and wherever demands for (and consumption of) feed exceed supply (including availability) of feed. Sadly, the history of both livestock husbandry and wildlife managaement proves that people-- for many and varied reasons-- frequently prize numbers of animls more than the health and productivity of animals. And some folk value the preservation of the range, the very source of all animal existance, even less. To (and, too) many people, whether vegetarian hunting with telephoto-lensed camera or mighty, flesh-eating nimrod armed with telescoped canon, seeing or shooting an elk is a greater need than enjoying all facets of the elk's environment and knowing that the elk herd is healthy and in equilibrium with it's habitat. Mini-editorial: If managers of Rocky Mountain National Park are not careful in their grazing management their browse range will end up like that of Yellowstone National Park. It will be woefully deteriorated to point of depletion. Then they will have to commission the National Research Council to do a "whitewash job" to cover their mismanagement. Move over Enron book-cookers. Rocky Mountain National Park, Grand County, Colorado. June. As immediately above, no designations except SRM 921, and that out of the region, (Willow). Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Rockies- Chrystalline Subalpine Forests Ecoregion, 21b (Chapman et al., 2006).

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11. Riparian Willow Scrub- This example of a willow-dominated range community grew along a section of the Donner-Blitzen River in a transition of High Lava Plains and Basin and Range provinces (generally known as the "Oregon High Desert"). Dominant species was narrowleaf willow (Salix exigua) though there were other Salix species as well that were associates. Another local associate was cluster or peafruit rose (Rosa pisocarpus). Except at edges of willow growth, there was little if any understorey the dense shrub canopy precluding development of such layer(s). Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Harney County, Oregon. J:une. No FRES ecosystem or Kuchler unit at the lengthy but "strip" (narrow-width) scale of this riparian vegetation. SRM 422 (Riparian) as described in previous captions. Northern Basin and Range- High Desert Wetlands Ecoregion, 80e (Thorson et al., 2003).

12. Narrowleaf willow (Salix exigua)- Pistillate inflorescences and identifying petiole-like leaf apices of a dominant ripraian species in the Oregon or Harney High Desert. Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Harney County, Oegon. June.

13. Wetland willows- Most willow species (Salix spp.) are intimately associated with free (surface) water. Willows are commonly found growing along streams (of sundry sizes and water temperatures), and are thought of in such context by most viewers of vegetation. Throughout much of the "Far West" (say, Rocky Mountains to Pacific Ocean) and, in particular along mountain streams, development of willow-dominated plant communities extends beyond the riparian zone into bottomlands adjacent to streams where later flow of water creates a subirrigated environment. Willow communities often expand to such degree as to ultimately occupy the entire subirrigated site (unless their expansion is checked by human management). With a large number of multiple shoots per individual shrub (genetic individual or genet) willows often form a community closed to other species except in the limited interspaces among individual willows. Successional status of such wetland scrub vegetation continues to be discussed by scientists and laymen alike, but has not been resolved (at least not to this author's knowledge or satisfaction). Human management to willow communities varies with most ranchmen favoring some degree of control of woody species that they regard as pests (ie. brush or noxious woody plants) while sportsmen (eg. fishermen) and landowners wishing to "leave it natural" opt for willow maintenance or even increase. This photograph illustrated the situation just descriped. Control of willows would allow development of a wet (subirrigated) meadow of sedges and grasses (with or without clumps of willows depending on degree of control). The "mixture" of willow and grass-grasslike vegetation shown here was the result of "leave it alone" or "let Nature take her course" management. This willow stand/meadow range had been grazed by beef cattle and, presumedly, by mule deer. Result was an apparent stable plant community with soil protected against erosion except immediately along stream bank (see slides below). Situations (vegetation, human use, wildlife habitat, land stability) like the one viewed here are common in many areas throughout the West and on both public and private land. This photograph showed physiognomy and architecture of a wetland willow scrub range, including herbaceous interspaces of sedges and mesic or hydric grasses. Along Silvies River, Grant County, Oregon. June. No FRES or Kuchler units for willow scrub (vegetation not mapped to such small-scale units. SRM 422 (Riparian). Blue Mountains-Melange Ecoregion, 11d (Chapman et al., 2006).

14. "Inside a willer thicket"- Interior of the willow scrub community of the preceding slide. Such range vegetation provides cover for both some species of wildlife and reclusive cows. The protection afforded by the dense willow cover is often ideal for calving, fawning, etc. It is, however, not the sort of protection necessary for calving heifers or desirable when gathering cattle. Such thickets are literally impenetrable even to skilled buckaroos but such scrub does make the case for good cow dogs. "'Sic her, Hank". Along Silvies River, Grant County, Oregon. June. No FRES or Kuchler units for willow thickets. SRM 422 (Riparian). Blue Mountains-Melange Ecoregion, 11d (Chapman et al., 2006).

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15. Damage (disturbance) to vegetation and stream bank by animal concentration- Two views showing elimination of willows and all other plants along with soil disturbance due to congregation of cattle along a streatch of Silvies River in the Blue Mountains province of central Oregon. Mule deer also range freely across this land, but as shown below damage to vegetation and soil surface and stream bank was limited to low river banks readily accessible to cattle. Streatches of Silvies River on either side of this cattle range that had mule deer but not cattle grazing showed no such disturbance. Deer tracks were not found among cow track in the mud of the river bank. Silvies River, Grant County, Oregon. June. SRM 422 (Riparian). Blue Mountains-Melange Ecoregion, 11d (Chapman et al., 2006).

16. Vegetation and stream bank not damaged by cattle- This streatch of Silvies River was immediately upstream (about two cow-lengths) from that shown in the immediately preceding slide. Defoliation of herbaceous plants was obvious on the top of the river bank but not down on the steeper sides (Steepness apparently deterred cattle use of forage up to water's edge in contrast to the situation presented in the two previous slides.) Cattle grazed herbaceous plants right up to large willows and did not proceed farther up river or move into the dense willow colony. Impact of cattle on this riparian range ecosystem would require careful analysis. Damage to river bank and potential for erosion and modification of stream channel were undisputable. Removal of vegetation and soil trampling in the area that resembled a hog wallow eliminated shading of water (compare this slide to the two immediately above). This certainly could increase water temperature in that streatch of river with potential detrimental impacts of cold-water fish like trout. Change in water temperature would also be partly a function of rate of water movement as well as initial water temperature and quantity of water exposed to radiation. Analysis of cattle influence on this range ecosystem, including aquatic habitat as well as soil and vegetation, might (or might not) indicate that the sacrifice area seen here was of such size as to have (or not have) an overall detrimental effect. Certainly cattle impact along portions or sections of the stream looked "real bad" and degree of use of herbaceous species beyond the river seemed excessive. It is possible, however, that adequate streatches of the river were protected (even in the cow pasture due to natural barriers of vegetation and stream morphology) with net result of little or no detrimal impact on the range or aquatic environment. This case was beyond any doubt a "black eye" for the beef cattle industry that has made remarkable progress in proper management of riparian range sites. This cattle-owner will not be receiving the National Cattlemen's Beef Association Environmental Stewardship Award any time soon! Public relations aside (though just as important), the exact or actual influence of such disturbance on the range and such range resources as the river require objective and detailed analysis. Silvies River, Grant County, Oregon. June.

17. Recovery of vegetation- This portion of Silvies River was immediately beyond that streatch that was a "stomp lot". This section can be seen at the end of the disturbed streatch shown in the first of two slides two captions immediately above. Cow hoof-induced soil at water's edge was visible in this photograph. Yet young willow shoots had risen along the river bank and for considerable distance away from the actual riparian zone into the subirrigated bottomland. One critical aspect of riparian grazing (proper management of riparian and adjoining range sites) is ecosystem resilience and rate of recovery. Fortunately, the "ideal" habitat of most riparian areas and sites ("ideal" for plant growth in this meaning) and potential for soil stability even in these flood plains and terraces is such that recovery from damage or disturbance (natural or human-induced) is among the fastest for any ecosystem. This fact partially explains the many delightful "success stories" of restoration projects on riparian ranges and associated streams. Given this relatively high likelihood of success, numerous "stake-holders" like stockmen, fishermen, backpackers, agency folks,.and even Boy Scouts have "rallied to the cause" and aided restoration of riparian and related natural resources. Recovery of willows along this stream immediately adjacent to disturbed riparian sections attested to the high potential rate of recovery and good chances for restoration of damaged riparian range. Further conservation of such natural resources depends on continued proper grazing management. Silvies River, Grant County, Oregon. June.

Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) Vegetation

Riparian willow scrub and mesquite bosque vegetation develops and exists as adjacent zones of climax range plant communities along watercourses and their drainages in southwestern North America. Much of this range vegetation pattern occurs in regions characterized by aridity and semiaridity. Both of these vegetation zones constitute range cover types. The willow cover type was considered immediately above and continued here in conjuction with the mesquite bosque type because these two communities occur together as integral parts of a common landscape. Mesquite bosque occurs as a band or zone of potential natural vegetation between the vegetational mosaic of Chihuhuan Desert-semidesert grassland and riparian willow scrub (along with Phragamites communis grassland which was covered under the Miscellaneous Grasslands chapter). Willow shrubland and mesquite bosque were organized and described as a subchapter because of the close spatial association and ecological interactions of these two ecosystems that were described here as range cover types.

Directional Note: In an effort to avoid confusion and frustration of readers it was again emphasized that reedbed or reedbank grassland made up of common reed (Phragmites commnis= P. australis) which grew end-to-end with willow scrub along banks of the Rio Grande was interpreted as a range cover type of grassland and as such was treated under the Grasslands biome as the Miscellaneous Grasslands chapter.

Willow

18. Route of the river- Land forms and vegetation defined by two rivers:. the Big Bend stretch of Rio Grande in the Trans-Pecos drainage of the Basin and Range province provides an environment for riverine vegetation in the midst of the Chihuhuan Desert. In the far background the Rio Grande emerges from Santa Elena Canyon. This is a chasm with sheer walls up to 1500 feet deep cut through the limestone of Sierra Ponce (the Chihuhua side in the left two-thirds of the background) and Mesa de Anguila (the Texas side in the right one-third background) by sand-laden, moving water over geologic time. Sierra Ponce- Mesa de Anguila are a mesa, "an uplifted block of Lower Cretaceous limestone", that is the remainder of a former and much higher mesa from which the softer Upper Cretaceous limestones and shales were eroded (Maxwell, 1968, ps. 87-89). Even short of its previous glory the mesa is a backdrop land form to a once-mightier river that now relies on another river, the Rio Conco, for most of its water.Even with most Rio Grande water dammed and diverted for human agricultural and municipal uses, there is adequate aquatic environment for well-defined range cover types. Immediately along the river banks (or back a short distance where there are recently formed sand bars) there is a zone of riparian vegetation made of two end-to-end disparate plant communities or, perhaps more descriptively, stands: 1) willow and 2) reed. The woody vegetation (a willow shrubland) and the herbaceous vegetation (a grassland of common reed [Phragmites communis]) are each spatially short and narrow "strips" of distinct plant communities which obviously interact yet are physically segregated. There are of course other plant species in the willow and reed communities but the two species so dominate their respective vegetation that most other species seem of miniscule importnce, at least from standpoint of range cover types. Adjacent to riparian vegetation on the river flood plain and covering a much broader breath of rangeland is vegetation known as bosque or bosques (mostly an Anglo-adopted Spanish word). Bosque vegetation is dominated by mesquite and other woody plants, most of which are of shrub rather than tree form and dimension. Willows are also usually shrubs or, at most, small trees. In restricted locations along short stretches of the Rio Grande riparian vegetation consist of large cottonwood trees, often with willows as a lower woody layer, that form small gallery forests. These gallery forests were treated separately under Miscellaneous Forest Types and Southern and Central Forests (Woodlands and Forests). Gallery forests were not discernable in these landscape-scale photographs. Technical Note: The term riparian may have somewhat different meanings or connotations as used Hydrology, Aquatic and Riparian Ecology, Range Management, or Forestry not to mention legal usages in the extremely specialized area of water law and policy. The Glossary of Hydrology (Wilson and Moore, 1998) defined riparian thusly: "Pertaining to or situated on the bank of a body of water, esp. of a watercourse such as a river; e.g. 'riparian land' situated along or abutting upon a stream bank..." (listed as synonyms were riparial and riparious). A Glossary of Terms Used in Range Management (Jacoby, 1989), an official publication of the Society for Range Management, defined riparian as: "Referring to or relating to areas adjacent to water or influencecd by free water associated with streams or rivers on geologic surfaces occupying the lowest position on a waatershed". Jacoby (1989) defined riparian zone: "The banks and adjaacent areas of water bodies, water courses, seeps and springs whose waters provide soil moisture sufficiently in excess of that otherwise available locally so as to provide a more moist habitat that that of contiguous flood plains and uplands". Clearly, hydrophytic or streamside (= riparian) vegetation such as that dominated by willows and reeds on the edge of the Rio Grande constitutes plant communities not only different from other vegetation, but growing on a different environment from that on and of the flood plain. Alternating patches or strips of willow and reed vegetation were clearly visible in both of these photographs. Also readily discernable was the more extensive (and drier-soil) area of mesquite bosque that had developed adjacent to riparian zone vegetation. Land in the immediate foreground was on an upland overlooking the Rio Grande and Sierra Ponce-Mesa de Anguila that provided a vista of riparian and flood plain vegetation. Vegetation on the upland foreground (vista point) was Chihuhuan Desert dominated by the climax species, creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) and tasajillo or pencil cholla (Opuntia leptocaulis). Quite a study of and contrast in range vegetation. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

19. River bank willows- Along this reach of the Rio Grande willows lined both river banks and formed plant communities consisting almost exclusively of vrious species of willow. Sandbar willow (Salix interior= S. exigua) was by far the most common species, but black willow (S. nigra) and yew-leaf willow (S. taxifolia) were present, even relatively abundant, locally. The conspicuous green grass in the understorey (right foreground) was naturalized common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylodon). Common bermuda is one of the most widely distributed naturalized grass species on Earth. Students take note of the multi-trunk form --usually the key feature distinguishing shrubs from trees-- of willows. Also take note of the readily available browse produced by willows. The escarpment of Sierra Ponce mesa in Chihuhua formed the background. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June. No appropriate FRES, Kuchler, or SRM for units of vegetation this small and/or in southwestern North America. SAF 235 (Cottonwood-Willow). Chihuhuan Deserts- Low Mountains and Bajadas Ecoregion, 24c (Griffith et al., 2004).

20. Willows at water's edge- Stand of coyote or basket willow in the riparian zone of the Rio Grande. Willows and a few other species like naturalized common bermudagrass formed riparian plant communities lining both banks of the Rio Grande. River banks comprised primarily of flooded sand were raised at considerable heights above "normal" or regular river height by deposition during periods of high water (flooding). Willows quickly established on the sand alluvium and stabilized banks thereby minimizing soil erosion and lowered water quality. Willow species reproduce by both asexual (= vegetative) and sexual means. Vegetative propagation consist of producing new shoots ("baby trees") from creeping rootstocks (rhizomes) of mature willows. Results of this process of producing clones or modules of existing adult trees was obvious in foreground of this photograph. "Root suckers", as these asexual secondary shoots are frequently called, also provide high-quality browse for species of range animals. Even grass-preferring grazers like cattle and elk will browse and consume copious quantities of such range feed. Range managers must carefully watch and manage this utilization of browse to prevent overbrowsing and instead insure perpetuation of willows (or cottonwoods to which the preceding applies equally). It was clear from this slide that vegetative reproduction is essential in Salix species, and that this in turn is essential to prevent accelerated soil erosion and sedimentation (deposition of eroded soil called sediment). Lower portion of the limestone escarpment, Sierra Ponce, in Chihuhua provided the background. Big Bend National Park, Brewster, County, Texas. June. No appropriate FRES, Kuchler, of SRM unit. SAF 235 (Cottonwood-Willow). Chihuhuan Deserts- Low Mountains and Bajadas Ecoregion, 24c (Griffith et al., 2004).

21. Sandbar or coyote or basket willow (Salix exigua= S. iinterior)- Sandbar willow is the major Salix species of willow communities in the riparain zone of the Rio Grande.This is also the dominant species of such riparian range vegetation. Stands of coyote willow like those shown in the two immediately preceding photographs consittute a consociation. Basket or interior willow is most commonly a shrub not a tree. The multi-stemed habit (feature of numerous shoots or trunks) is usually the main distinguishing feature that differentiates shrubs from trees. The multi-shoot morphology of willow was quite pronounced in this single specimen. This is one plant, one genetic individual (= a genet), in which each shoot (trunk with limbs and branches) is a clone (= ramet). Sandbar willow also reproduces sexually (stay tuned). Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas.

22. Willows waving from the shore- In the riparian zone branches and leaves of sandbar or interior willow that formed narrow yet dense stands on sand banks of the Rio Grande. This is the most common and most often the dominant Salix species in this area. Twig tips, buds, leaves, and bark of willows is extremely valuable browse for many kinds of range animal from domestic and native ruminants to beaver (Castor canadensis). Willows are of more immediate value in stabliizing the erosion-prone channels and banks of Rio Bravo. Some such erosion is natural (= geologic) erosion which of course is essential to landscape and ecosystem function. It was action of sand-laden water moving over course of river and time that carved magnificant canyons like Santa Elena through the Upper Cretaceous limestone of the Sierra Ponce-Mesa de Anguila escarpment visible in the background. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June..

23. Catkin of coyote or sandbar willow, and "Its a girl"- The inflorescence type in Salicaceae, the willow or cottonwood family, is the catkin or ament defined by Smith (1977) as "an inflorescence characterized by typically unisexual, apetalous, bracteate flowers in a pendant cluster". Salix species are dioecious, but most like S. interior shown here are monoecious. It was shown in some of the preceding photographs that most reproduction in sandbar willow is vegetative (asexual). The plant shown here, however, was apparently enjoying the renewable pleasure of sex.This catkin was female. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June.

Mesquite Bosque

Honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) forms one climax range plant community that can be recognized--and probably incontrovertably--as a range cover type. There may be more than one, but there is one kind of potential natural vegetation that even the most ardent, kill-it-any-way-you-can, hard-core, the-best-mesquite-is-a-dead-one mesquite haters (eg. this author) recognize as something besides a noxious woody invasion. That range vegetation is what Kuchler (1964, p. 27; in Garrison et al., 1977 as unit K-23 under Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystems) entitled and described as Mesquite Bosques. Kuchler (1964, p. 27) limited occurrence of Mesquite Bosques to southern Arizona (in the United States) and Kuchler did not include this unit in his map of potential natural vegetation in Garrison et al.(1977), but rangemen throughout the greater Southwest realize that Mesquite Bosques extends from Texas across to southern California and far down into the Mexican states (eg. Chihuhua, Sonora). Mesquite was recognized by Kuchler (1964) and Garrison et al. (1977) as a dominant species in other climax units of potential natural vegetation including Mesquite Savanna and Mesquite-Acacia Savanna (Kuchler, 1964, ps. and units 60 and 61), but Mesquite Bosques is a closed canopy shrubland or even low-stature woodland not savanna. Mesquite Bosques has limited herbaceous understorey in contrast to the dominant and defining herbaceous layer(s) as in savanna range cover types. This distinction corresponded roughly to that by the Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) in which type-describer Bill Dahl distinguished SRM 727 (Mesquite-Buffalograss), SRM 728 (Mesquite-Granjeno-Acacia), and SRM 729 (Mesquite). Likewise the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) recognized SAF 68 (Mesquite). To some degree similarities among these units of vegetation were greater in title than in detailed description, but even in that regard there was a consistent understanding among various vegetation scientists that mesquite does develop into dense natural plant communities along stream corridors and/or adjacent habitats. "On some bottomland sites, however, honey mesquite grows to tree size and stands assume characteristics of a forest" (Eyre, 1980, p. 71). Bosque is an interesting term. Bosque is more-or-less Spanish (it might be somewhat less so than commonly assumed as explained shortly) that was "adopted" by and has persisted in a predominately Anglo culture. In fact, bosque is one of the iconoclastic Spanish nouns (like mesa, coyote, and rodeo) that, except for slightly different pronounction, became incorporated into popular culture and that conjures up an agreed-upon image. Bosque is Spanish for "wooded thicket", but the term is very similar to (and consistent with) bosquet, the French word for "thicket" that in turn was derived from busk meaning "forest". In states like Texas where there is a rich heritage and history of French as well as Spanish occupation (ie. a legacy of La Salle as well as Columbus, Coronado, and Cortez) it is understandable that an Anglicized "bosque" would persist. An example is the Bosque River in central Texas. As "bosque" is used today-- in both popular as well as professional-scientific usage-- the term applies to (and brings to minds of most users an image of) woody vegetation growing on flood plains or generally low-lying environments with mesic or, infrequently, hydric soils and dominated by mesquite, salt cedar (Tamarisk spp.), willow, cottonwood, seep willow or willow baccharis (Baccharis salicifolia) or, less commonly, other woody angiosperms like ash or oak. With continued ecosystem-threatening invasion of saltcedar (esp. T. chinensis= T. ramosissima), and cooperative programs attempting eradiction of this non-native species, "bosque" is often first thought of as thickets (or forests) of saltcedar or saltcedar and mesquite growing along streams including major rivers. For example, Brown et al. (1998, p. 44) listed Saltcedar Disclimax Series and Seepwillow Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub biotic community. Even before (and hopefully there will be an "after") saltcedar invasion there were various other species of woody plants besides mesquite (as well as herbaceous plants) in bosques. There are even other species of native woody legumes. Honey mesquite was (is), however, so dominant and provided the key physiogonomic element that the designation "mesquite bosque" was "only natural" (no pun intended). Honey mesquite is generally regarded as a facultative phreatophyte, a plant species that can function as a "well plant" (one with some of its roots in the capillary fringe just above the water table) yet one in which this feature is not a requirement as it is in obligate phreatophytes. Woody species that have been regarded as olbigate phretophytes include saltcedar, willows, and some cottonwood species (Barbour et al. 1999, p. 553). Based on field observations, the current author felt that the preceding categorization seemed far too general. Saltcedar is commonly found growing on habitats where it could not possibly "tap" the capillary fringe or where its roots are far from subirrigated soils. Without definitive studies it seemed apparent that most plant species on Mesquite Bosques are facultative phreatophytes. In this vein-- and in the organization of the current publication-- it was impertive to distinguish between actual or strictly riparian (= streamside or stream corridor) vegetation and vegetation on flood plains or habitats in close proxomity to water courses. The latter plant communities are not literally riparian or partially aquatic though such communities are often adjacent to (or in very close to) riparian vegetation. Both of these categories or general groups of range vegetation are on wetlands and they are, therefore, wetland range communities. The difference is roughly between more-or-less permanently saturated soil of riparain environments and the sometimes satuirated but usually mesic-more-than-hydric water condition of environments at greater distances from watercourses. This difference could be seen as that between permanently or, at least, seasonally wet or water-covered versus intermittently wet or water-covered. The concept of flood plain is central to this understanding. "Wet" (water-covered) whenever the watercourse is within its banks is riparian; "wet" (water-covered) only when the watercourse is outside its banks (ie. flooding) is flood plain. Riparian (as in riparian zone) was distinguished from flood plain by the Society for Range Management (Jacoby, 1989). This was quoted above in a Technical Note inside the first photograph caption under the Willow portion of Rio Grande Vegetation. This somewhat arbitrary yet obvious distinction is basic to describing and providing examples of range cover types. Mesquite bosques usually or naturally (eg. without drastic disturbance such as engineering activieties on rivers) develop as a zone of vegetation adjacent to the riparian zone, this latter of which usually includes obligate phreatophytes such as numerous species of willow. Willows are a wetland scrub (= one kind of shrubland) . The willow range cover type was treated immediatlely preceding this treatment of the mesquite bosque. There are also herbaceous plant communities that are riparian vegetation and that are composed of obligate phretophytes. One of these that is climax vegetation and a rangeland cover type and that develops as a vegetation zone between streambank and mesquite bosque is the common reed (Phragmites communis) community.This is grassland, a restricted kind or form of the grassland biome. The common reed community was covered under the chapter, Miscellaneous Grasslands (grasslands biome). The example of mesquite bosque treated here was along the Big Bend of the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo). Riparian vegetation of willow and common reed were, except where confined in canyons, bordered by flood plain vegetation, primarily by the mesquite bosque cover type. The photographs were taken either 1) inside Big Bend National Park where there was a saltcedar eradication program underway or 2) along stretches of the Rio Grande where saltcedar was absent or only a minor component of the vegetation. This was consistent with the purpose of showing natural (or naturalized) vegetation as it related to range cover types. Range improvement practices --including essential brush control-- was viewed as another topic. Viewers should scroll back up to the first two photographs presented under Rio Grande willow scrub to see location of the mesquite bosque, especially in regards to riparian range plant communities and upland Chihuhuan Desertscrub. Now view the bosque vegetation. Use the "notch" of Santa Elena canyon in Sierra Ponce-Mesa de Anguila escarpment as your landmark. Next slides please ...

24. Mesquite bosque along Rio Bravo- The panarama of land form and vegetation were captured in these views of the broad flood plain of the Rio Grande where it emerges through Santa Elena Canyon. This river-carved "notch" has walls up to 1500 feet heigh (deep) where over geologic time moving, sand-carrying water cut thorugh the escarpment, the mesa, of Sierra Ponce (in Chihuhua and to left of the canyon)-Mesa de Anguila (in Texas and to right of canyon). As the Rio Bravo spilled out of Santa Elena Canyon it spread sand-bearing water across its flood plain leaving the alluvial sand (and other suspended particles and soil separates) to build up soil across this delta and providing water in a deset or semidesert (arid either way) for range plants. Soil moisture conditions were (are) mesic on the delta or flood plain and not hydric as in the riparian zone. Available soil water content (chresard, the amounf of water available for plant use) is a function of both plant species as well as edaphic (of or pertaining to soil) features. The flood plain phenomenon is a function of many and varied factors, but the three-way interaction of water, soil, and plants is primal. Riparian range plant communities like willow and reed develop in the riparian zone of mostly permanently wet rooting medium (saturated soil; soil water content greater than field capacity). . Flood plain range vegetations develops on soils that are ephemerally or seasonally wet ("water-logged"), but that are below field capacity for prolonged periods of time such that plant stress due to water shortage sometimes to frequently exist. Species of plants that can but do not have to function as phretophytes (facultative phreatophytes) often thrive on such soil and water conditions. In addition sandy soils more readily absorb water (ie. have greater rates of infiltration) so that a greater quantity of overflowing river water (as well as that from precipitation) soaks into the soil for later use by plants. A bosque is frequently the vegetational outcome of such plant environments along flood plains (and zones of soil moisture outward from the hydric riparian zone) on rivers in southwestern North America. Typically, native plant species that dominate bosques are facultative phreatophytes, honey mesquite being numero uno among these. While mesquite was the main beneficiary of such natural irrigation and fertilization other native woody legumes include screwbean or tornillo (Prosopis pubescens), retama (Parkinsonia aculeata), Texas paloverde (Cercidium texanum), blackbrush or chaparro prieto (Acacia rigidula), and huisache (A. farnesiana). All of these species are present along the Rio Grande flood plain at one location or another. Another native shrub common on bosques (though more on the outer, hence drier, parts) is seepwillow or jara (Baccharis salicoflia). Saltcedar, a species introduced (probably by nurseymen and, ironically, by the United States Department of Agriculture) from the Old World (most likely the Mediterranean Region), locally dominates bosques. Control practices have been applied to saltcedar on parts of the Rio Grande (eg. in Big Bend National Park) and along much of the reach of the Pecos. A few plants of saltcedar were discernable by their light pink-colored flower clusters. Herbaceous species are limited in the understorey of bossque vegetation probably as a consequence of shade from shrubs. Interesting enough many of the dominant grasses are annual cool-season Eurasian, mostly weedy, species that can get adequate light at seasons when deciduous dominant shrubs are without leaves. Examples include redor foxtail brome (Bromus rubens), Japanese brome or chess (B. japonicus), and little barley (Hordeum pusillum). Native perennial grasses include inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta= D. spicata var spicata), tobosagrasa (Hilaria mutica), and fluffgrass (Tridens pulchellus= Erioneuron pulchellum). One of the most common introduced and now naturalized perennial grass species was bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylodon). Perennial grasses were most common along edges and on openings within the woody vegetation of the bosque. Fluffgrass was the most common of these. The most common forb was often found to be the shrublike arrowweed (Tessaria sericea); in fact, this is often regarded as a shrub. Big Bend National Park, Brewster County, Texas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 30 (Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). K-23 (Mesquite Bosques). SRM 729 (Mesquite). SAF 68 (Mesquite). No appropriate unit in Brown et al. (1998) which is surprising as there should be a Mesquite Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub the same as for Seepwillow Series. No Texas ecoregion units (Griffith et al. 2004) were small enough to describe mesquite bosques. Chihuhuan Deserts- Low Mountains and Bajadas Ecoregion, 24c (Griffith et al., 2004).

25. Bosque vegetation- An exterior view of a bosque along Alamito Creek just above its confluence with the Rio Grande. This was the outer (drier edge) of a mesquite bosque that had a relatively rich assembly of range plant species. Seepwillow or jara was visible as light green shrubs along the right margin of the photograph. Taller shrubs with darker green coloration included the natives honey mesquite, retama, and screwbean. and the invasive saltcedar. The most widespread herbaceous plant was common bermudagrass, but it occurred only in localized areas. Frequently bosques are primarily single-species stands of mesquite.This example was remarkable for its species diversity. Presidio County, Texas. June, early estival aspect. FRES No. 30 (Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). K-23 (Meesquite Bosques). SRM 729 (Mesquite). SAF 68 (Mesquite). No appropriate unit in Brown et al. (1998), but it should have been given as Mesquite Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub. No Texas ecoregions (Griffith et al., 2004) appropriate for vegetation units this small.

26. Bosque vegetation- Interior of a mesquite bosque along the Rio Bravo in an arid region. Seepwillow or jara was prominent in the foreground. Honey mesquite was the dominant species overall and it was conspicuous in the midground. Understorey plants were mostly Eurasian cool-season annual grasses including Japanese chess and little barley. There were patches of bermudagrass. The most common native grass was the annual showy or silver fingergrass (Chloris virgata). Fluffgrass was the only native perennial grass the author could find. The relatively lush vegetation of the bosque was in stark contrast to the sparse hills of creosotebush-dominated Chihuhuan Descrub on the hills in the background. Presidio County, Texas. June, early estival aspect.FRES No. 30 (Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). K-23 (Mesqujite Bosques). SRM 729 (Mesquite). SAF 68 (Mesquite). No appropriate biotic community in Brown et al. (1998), but should have been Mesquite Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub. No Texas ecoregions (Griffith et al., 2004) were small enough to be descriptive. Chihuhuan Deserts- Low Mountains and Bajadas Ecoregion, 24c (Griffith et al., 2004).

27. Retama (Parkinsonia aculeata) on a bosque- A localized population or stand of retama had dveloped inside the larger, overall mesquite bosque. In this particular bosque along the Rio Grande retama was the associate species to the dominant honey mesquite. Understorey was composed of cool-season annual Eurasian grass species including Japanese brome, rdd or foxtail brome, and little barley. Presidio County, Texas. June. FRES No. 30 (Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). K-23 (Mesquite Bosques). Retama variant of SRM 729 (Mesquite). SAF 68 (Mesquite). No appropriate units for biotic community in Brown et al. (1998); spatial scale too small for TExas ecoregions (Griffith et al, 2004).

28. Deep inside a bosque- Trunk of retama with dead straw of annual grasses including Japanese chess, little barley, and red brome. Multi-shoot habit designates this a woody legume as shrub, albeit a large one, and not a tree.All trunks of shrubs in this slide were retama. This was a localized stand or population of retama within the overall mesquite-dominated bosque.The gray-leafed forb was leatherweed croton (Croton pottsii) at pre-bloom stage. Presidio County, Texas. June. FRES 30 Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). K-23 (Mesquite Bosques). Retma variant of SRM 729 (Mesquite). SAF 68 (Mesquite). No appropriate biotic community given by Brown et al. (1998), but should be Mesquite Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub. No Texas ecoregions (Griffith et al., 2004) at this small a spatial scale.

29. Retama (Parkinsonia aculeata) characteristics- Drooping branches of retama with distinctive compound leaves and inflorescence. Retama is a woody legume with a fairly large biological (species) range extending across much of southern North America. Maricopa County, Arizona. June.

30. Inflorescences of retama- Retama is in the legume subfamily, Caesalpinioideae. This subfamily has been treated by some authors as a separate family, Caesalpiniaceae. The flowers comprising the inflorescence in this group are not papilionaceous (having five fused petals) as in the Papilionoideae subfamily. Maricopa County, Arizona June.

31. Floral and foliar details of honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa)- Inflorescences and compound leaves of honey mesquite the dominant species of mesquite bosques. Mesquite is in the legume subfamily, Mimosoideae. Some treatments elevated this to the family level, Mimosaceae, as distinct from the Caesalpiniaceae and Papilionaceae. The latter taxon is the only one of these three subfamilies (or families) that has the papilionaceous flower consisting of five petals: two wings, two fused keels, and the banner or standard. Most authors rely on the fruit type, the legume (so-called "bean" or "pod", as the key morphological feature and which they interpret as of more taxonomic value than flower type. Erath County, Texas. May.

32. Inflorescences of mesquite- Photographs showing details of mesquite infloresences. Good example of the flower type in the Mimosoideae subfamily of the Leguminoseae. One of the virtues (there are a few, precious damn few) of honey mesquite is value as a "bee plant". Purists insist that honey made from mesquite nectar is the sweetest of all. (There are those who swear just as strongly by white clover, alfalfa, etc.). Purists of th barbeque sect feel just as strongly in favor of mesquite wood over hickory smoke for the finest in flesh food flavoring. Erath County, Texas. May.

33. Leaves and fruits of honey mesquite- Details of the compound leaf and legume fruit type in mesquite. After paying due respect to honey mesquite as a "bee plant" it should be explained that the adjective "honey" was derived from the sweet flavor of the legumes. American Indians made a bread from the meal of ground mesquite legumes and even fermented this meal into a beer (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 688). (The latter was not as effective as the whiteman's "firewater".) Sap that exudes from the fruit following injury (eg. insect damage) even has a sweet taste. Erath County, Texas. September.

34. Cattle consuming (and preparing to plant) mesquite "beans"- This photograph showed Hereford steers heartily browsing mesquite fruits. These steers had been raised on mesquite-free range and had never seen or tasted mesquite in any form until as long-yearlings they came upon this made-to-order delicacy on deteriorated black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) range. Steers automatically began eating the fruit. Many, maybe most, of the fruits and seeds were immature so that while some seed may have been planted other seeds were removed before they could develop enough to germinate. Thee cattle were thus a form of biological brush control to some extent. These were esophageal-fistulated steers. They were used to collect forage (it fell into the canvas bag around their necks) which was then used to determine botanical and chemical composition of cattle diets on this range type (Rosiere et al., 1975; Rosiere et al, 1975). Just about "everything ever written" about mesquite described how most mammals, including man, ate mesquite fruit (either the whole fruit or just the seeds). Some of the earliest writings about mesquite explained that when animals ate the legumes the seeds (many of them at least) passed through the gastro-intestional tract undigested and were deposited at great distances from their source plant. In this way mesquite was spread on a "wholesale" scale by the white man. Early on, cattle were implicated as being agents of mesquite propagule dispersal. This means of spread became institutionalized with cattle drives and famous cattle trails. Even before the post-Civil War cattle-trailing business, sheep and goats had been trailed across much of south and west Texas and into Mexico. Thus the time-honored story goes, was mesquite spread from its pre-Columbian restriction to bosques along watercourses and habitats where natural and Indian-set fires could not travel to its "monopoly" of the range throughout the species' biological range. The story is true, at least in large part. It should also be remembered that much of this spread by livestock was by beasts of burden such as oxen along established trade routes (eg. El Camino Real from Santa Fe to Chihuhua City). What has never been fully explained is why the highly migratory North American buffalo (Bison bison) had not already spread mesquite in the thousands of years before the "white man's buffalo" became such an effective "mesquite seeder". Cessation of range fires enforced by legislation, "civilizing" agarian agriculture, and government propaganda facilitated spread of mesquite. Droughts (a feature of the climate for millenia) worked in concert with these and a "jillion" other factors perhps including small mammal "eradication" campaigns. Regardless of actual details of the "man and mesquite saga", mesquite bosques served as the natural source for much of the unnatural spread of a native species that in a remarkably short time became one of the most noxious woody plants over an immense part of North American range. New Mexico State University College Ranch, Dona Ana County, New Mexico. July.

35. Two mesquite seedlings that germinated in cattle dung- Apparently all ruminants will eat mesquite “pods” with domestic cattle appearing especially fond of them. Many rangemen have observed cattle which were so attracted to mesquite fruit that they forsook almost all other forage and browse as long as the “bean pods” were abundant. It has been long reported in the literature that consumption of mesquite fruit results in scarification and distribution of the seed in their own fertile “seedbed”. This is one factor that contributes to spread of this native invader. Buffalo (Bison bison)— among other native ruminants— undoubtedly were native dispersal agents long before the “white man’s buffalo” arrived on the scene. This fact continues to raise the unanswered question as to why there was not the mesquite “epidemic” on the virgin range. This is obviously a complex interaction of several factors, but presence of fire on the pre-white man range had to have been one of these (which is not to ignore overgrazing and all other anthropogenic influences including wholesale extermination of prairie dogs, a favorite hypothesis among pioneer Texas cattlemen). Kelton (1993, p. 79) reported accounts of early day farmers who told of their plows frequently hitting old burnt mesquite stumps as they broke virgin Texas sod.

Insert caption under slide 24.

Seepwillow Bosque

Another flood plain range cover type is the seepwillow or jara (Baccharis salcifolia)-dominated bosque. This range vegetation also develops on alluvium of deltas or other flood overflow habitats in arid and semiarid regions. Seepwillow was an associate species on mesquite bosques covered immediately above. A less common (more restricted) bosque range type is that on which seepwillow or jara is the dominant. That range cover type was treated next.

36. Seepwillow bosque- Along this gravel wash or alluvium of the Devil River seepwillow (Baccharis salcifolia) dominated a woody thicket that also consisted of (as associate species) huisache, pecan (Carya illinoinensis), and, of course, honey mesquite. Grass plants were uncommon, but species present included silver bluestem (Andropgon saccharoides= Bothriochloa saccharoides), Texas cupgrass (Eriochloa sericea), fall witchgrass (Leptoloma cognatum), red grama (Bouteloua trifida), and curly mesquite (Hilaria belangeri). Miscellaneous composites made up most of the forb group. Devil River Ranch, Val Verde County, Texas. May. FRES No. 30 (Desert Shrub Shrubland Ecosystem). No vegetation unit in Kucler (1964; in Garrison et al., 1977) or Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994). Seepwillow Series under Southwestern Interior Swamp and Riparian Scrub. No Texas ecoregion (Griffith et al, 2004) unit for range cover type this small in spatial scale.

37. A widely distributed, well-adapted plant (with a lot of confusing names)- Willow baccharis (Baccharis salicina= B. salicifolia= B. neglecta= B. angustifloia) has had a lot of specific epithets (hence, confusion and argument). Plants presented in these photographs and the three that follow were of willow baccharis growing on go-back rice fields on what were once coastal marshes along the Gulf Coast. The third of this set of photographs was of a young (immature) willow baccharis produced by resprouting from a cut-off mature stump. These second-season (two growing season's worth of shoot regrowth) sprouts furnished a good example of shoot characteristics of this woody composite. These sprouts are coppice shoots (often known as stump sprouts or suckers) produced by the original shoot in response to the stimulus of defoliation when the main shoot was severed. This is an example of free growth and the coppice sprouting results in heterophyllus shoots (those that were not produced from fully preformed, over-wintering buds). Stump suckers are long shoots identified and designated by long internodes (internode elongation) and absence of a cluster of leaves at shoot apex, this latter of which is a feature of short shoots (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1979, ps. 65-71, 77). Jefferson County, Texas. February.

38. Branch of willow baccharis- Upper portions of stump sprouts of willow baccharis that were introduced in the preceding photograph. Stump sprouting of a cut adult willow baccharis resulted in a young plant that had retained its leaves through winter. This individual of Baccharis salicina was growing along the Gulf Coast near mouth of Sabine River. It provided an example of young shoots, complete with foliage, of one of the most common and widely distributed species of woody composite. Jefferson County, Texas. February.

39. Shoot details of Baccharis salicina- A normal or regular leader (woody shoot) of willow baccharis on an adult plant provided a good example of bark, branching pattern, and leaf features on one of the more widely distributed woody composites along the central and western Gulf Coast and also in the Trans Pecos Basin and Range Region. A short, vertical shoot (right side in first slide; the featured subject of second slide) was shown to portray characteristic leaves. This vertical shoot originated from an established internode by developing from intercalary meristem, a phenomenon much more common following damage or death of the existing shoot (especially as from defoliation). Jefferson County, Texas. February.

Rocky Mountain Riparian and Related Wetland Range

Rocky Mountain riparian ecosystem- A series of five slides was displayed immediately below which presented riparian plant communities that were valuable as range, watershed, and wildlife-fish habitat. The first three of these slides were taken above and looking down into riparian (and adjacent) vegetation along a mountain stream, Willow Creek, that formed three distinctive plant communities, all of which were visible from different focal points in each photograph. The last two slides were of Michigan Creek, a different-- though similar and the same kind of-- mountain stream, viewed "from the inside". The streams and it's communities could be viewed holistically as suggested by the caption title of "riparian ecosystem" or even in the larger context of the discipline of Landscape Ecology in which the stream is but one ecosystem of several functioning at landscape scale. The photographs should prove useful for such purposes as well as for others (eg. to illustrate how varying soil water contents influence plants individually and as communities). In the context of this publication devoted to range cover types the emphasis was placed on the vegetation and the factors controlling it and being controlled by it. Lessons in Autecology and Synecology were left to other instructors and students.

40. Rocky Mountain bottomland or floodplain vegetation- Three distinct woody plant-dominated communities developed along the expansive flood bottoms of Willow Creek: 1) a willow carr made up of large shrubs or small trees, 2) a gallery forest of balsam and narrowleaf cottonwood species, and 3) an interior Douglas-fir forest with such associated species as lodgepole pine, hawthorne, and Colorado blue spruce. Quaking aspen was present throughout but only as scattered individuals or small clumps rather than as characteristic groves. In the willow thicket "quakies" were limited to the edges where competition with willows was less intense and perhaps where soils were somewhat less than waterlogged. The ability of Douglas-fir to survive as a facultative phreatophyte (or something thereabouts) was shown by presence of large Douglas-fir in the cottonwood gallery forest. The shoot apex of a young Douglas-fir was easily seen in the lower left hand corner of this first slide of the series. Willow Creek, Grand County, Colorado. June. No FRES or Kuchler designations for the willow carr. The gallery forest was FRES No. 17 (Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Forest Ecosystem). K-89 (Northern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 235 (Cottonwood-Willow). Cottonwood-Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Riparian Deciduous Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Rockies- Sedimentary Subalpine Forests Ecoregion, 21e (Chapman et al., 2006).

41. Vegetation of a subalpine mountain stream in the Southern Rocky Mountains- In this second slide of Rocky Mountain riparian vegetation viewers see a willow carr that developed along the meanders of the backwaters of Willow Creek. The backwater is similar to the characteristic ox-bow lakes that form along rivers and the larger watercourses, but here the mountain stream either moves too fast or has too low a sustained flow to form the classic ox-bow pattern. Stream flow was slowed and small ponds were formed as results to dam construction by beaver (Castor canadensis). The high stumps of two recently felled quakies are obvious in the immediate center foreground. Beaver-felled logs were also visible on the floor of the more open spaces of the carr. Grasses and grasslike plants grew on these willow-free areas. Bluejoint was a common grass and sedges included several unidentifiable species besides beaked sedge. (These two species can be seen in the slides of a wet subalpine mountain meadow in the Kawuneeche Valley presented above in this set of slides on willow scrub.) Quaking aspen were photographed in the immediate left-hand foreground to show characteristic aspen bark and on the far right side where the trunk and trembling leaves of a quakie were portrayed and stilled for the moment. Boughs of a young Douglas-fir growing immediately behind the leftside quakie added a touch of biodiversity to the photograph. The bottomland Douglas-fir forest was still visible in the far background. Willow Creek, Grand County, Colorado. June.

42. Rocky Mountain subalpine willow carr- Carr is apparently a term of Scandinavian origin applied to wetland habitats generally. Somehow in Anglo Saxon usage, especially as applied in the American language, carr became associated with woody wetlands and more for shrubs than wetlands dominanted by larger trees to which the term swam is spplied. The Society of American Foresters defined carr as "deciduous woodland or scrub on a permanently wet, organic soil" to which it specified that "a carr develops from a bog, fen, or swamp" (Helms, 1998). Carr has come into recent general usage for riparian scrub comprised of species like willow, alder, birch, etc. Ability of Douglas-fir to function as a facultative phreatophyte was mentioned in the first slide of this series and that phenomenon was even more evident here with several streamside-growing Douglas-fir clearly visible in the right background. A beaver dam and the pond it formed at a bend of the creek was included in the field of view somewhat left of center background. Willow Creek, Grand County, Colorado. June. No appropriate FRES or Kuchler designation for willow carr: mapping units are too large for this local range cover type. Closest SRM was 921(Willow). Cottonwood-Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Riparian Deciduous Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Rockies- Sedimentary Subalpine Forests Ecoregion, 21e (Chapman et al., 2006).

43. Rocky Mountain willow scrub- Interior of a willow carr along a tributary of Michigan Creek in the northern Front Range. It was remarked earlier that Salix is one of the more complex and challenging genera with regard to field identification. The exact species, or even number thereof, in this willow thicket were not determined but one can readily distinguish at least three different kinds of willow in the photograaph of this riparian community. The nearly impenetrable nature of this wetland scrub was also apparent. Area of this carr was increased by presence of several beaver dams which created ponds and greatly expanded the total flooded area. The student of Range Management at first flush might not think of willow scrub as range or the bark-eating beaver, largest rodent native to North America, as a range animal but both most certainly are. Fans of frontier history delight in the fact that the continent-wide search for wealth in the form of hides and pelts, especially beaver plew, was one of the first uses of natural resources and foremost frontier commodities that pulled frontiersmen ever westward into the North American wilderness. Even before such range animals as the American buffalo and elk, it was the beaver that lured free-spirited individualists outward and west of where "polite society" had settled. Eventually this "Call of the Wild" bred the breed labeled "free trapper" (no Hudson Bay Company lackies these courageous, resourceful souls) whose name is forever etched in the American imagination: the Mountain Man (or more precisely the Mountain-Plainsman). If one listens attentatively he can hear through the "Wind in the Willows" the enduring strains of that beloved frontier cadence: "Oh, Shenandoah, I long to hear you. Away, you rolling river. Oh, Shenandoah, I can't get near you. Away, away, I"m bound away Far across the Wide Missouri." Of the countless books devoted to the North American fur trade (perhaps second only to "cows and cowboys") your author, while noting the popular culture equivalent of works like the historical novel, Centennial, by James A. Mitchener, recommended the following professional yet entertaining treatments: The American Fur Trade of the Far West (Chittenden, 1902), Across the Wide Missouri-- best preceded by The Course of Empire-- (DeVoto, 1947, 1952), This Reckless Breed of Men (Cleland, 1950), and A Life Wild and Perilous (Utley, 1997). Michigan Creek, Jackson County, Colorado. June. No appropriate FRES or Kuchler designations. Closest SRM was 921 (Willow), and that was out of the region. Willow Series in Rocky Mountain Alpine and Subalpine Swamp and Riparian Scrub biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Rockies- Sedimentary Subalpine Forests Ecoregion, 21e (Chapman et al., 2006).

44. Aquatic and riparian vegetation of a natural lake in northern Rocky Mountains- This large lake is surrounded by mixed coniferous forest dominated by western white pine, western red cedar, and grand fir but in the shallow portions and the riparian zone many herbaceous and shrubby species form numerous zones of vegetation. Aquatic species in the center of view in open water include duckweed (Lemna spp.), pondweed (Potamogeton spp.), and white pond lily (Nymphaea tetragonia).  The “off-color” green in left background (in front of forest) is rush (Juncus spp.) while the vegetation zones in center foreground include common cattail (Typha latifolia), arrowhead (Sagittaria cuneata), bur-reed (Sparganium spp.),  numerous sedges (Carex spp), and, at water’s edge, annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica). Low shrubs in the lake are willows (Salix sp). The leaves of the shrub in the foreground are those of  Rocky Mountain or dwarf maple (Acer glabrum). This is “high heaven” as habitat for moose (Alces alces) which are locally abundant. Benewah Lake, Heyburn State Park, Benewah County, Idaho. June. No FRES or K- designations. Northern Rockies- Northern Idaho Hills and Low Relief Mountains Ecoregion, 15v (McGrath et al., 2001).

45. Rocky Mountain or dwarf maple- Edge of Benewah Lake, Heyburn State Park, Beanewah County, Idaho. June.

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