Grassland Slides

Tallgrass Prairie

1. The Virgin Prairie- Tallgrass prairie; bluestem pastures. Physiography and vegetation of the Flint Hills. Tallgrass prairie dominated by "The Four Horsemen of the Prairies": big bluestem (Andropogon geraldii= A. furcatus), little bluestem (A. scoparius = Schizachyrium scoparium), Indiangrass (Sorgastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum).Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie).

* Note: In the North American biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) all cover types within the tallgrass prairie were encompassed by the generic--and overly broad-- designation of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series except for the Beardgrass Series of Gulf Coastal Grassland. Even the latter was too general for the less diverse Gulf Coastal Tallgrass Prairie. The title of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series was not repeated again because there are numerous and more specific rangeland cover types within the tallgrass prairie. The better known Kuchler unit, Bluestem Prairie, was shown throughout because it was basis of the Prairie Ecosystem of the long-standing Forest and Range Ecosystem series.

2. Tallgrass prairie transect- "Compressed" along this length (approximately 80 yards) of Flint Hills sod is the complete array of all major tallgrass prairie communities going from wet bottomland to shallow, rocky hilltop. In the immediate left foreground is an eastern gamagrass consociation (a zone of "pure" eastern gamagrass or natural single- species stand) except for two or three patches of canada or nohe third "strip", of two species: 1) big bluestem (far left patch of shorter grass) which is a short-shoot grass that does not elongate its culm until late summer so infloresences have just emerged and 2) a bottomland ecotype of switchgrass (far right midground that has fully emerged its panicle inflorescences that have a reddish cast). Switchgrass is a long-shoot tallgrass that elongates its culm and apical meristem relatively early in the growing season. The fourth zone is Indiangrass which is also a long-shoot tallgrass species of about the same height as the switchgrasss and, being behind it, is not visible from this vantage point. The hillside in the background is a "three-way" dominance mixture of big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama farily evenly distributed but with the three respective species becoming progressively less dominant as they populate the hillside until sideoats grama forms a “pure” single-species stand at the summit except for scattered compassplants which are visible against the skyline. The main associate interspersed in the eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass is the prominent, tall, yellow composite, wholeleaf rosin-weed (Silphium integrifolium). The mid-height graminoid in the bottom of the draw in far right foreground is another Carex species.
This zonal distribution of species in the vegetation is due to soil moisture (and soil depth largely as a determinant of soil water). This is the phenomenon that F.E. Clements (1920, p. 26; Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 203) explained by the term chresard ("amount for use") or soil water available for use by plants. Like most of Clements’ terms this one never caught on (perhaps fortunately so). It seems synonymous with the term and concept of field capacity water for mesophytes, but Clements used chresard as one major factor to explain distribution of plants. The zonation of tallgrass prairie species along this chresard gradient is gradation from most mesic (or maybe hydric) to least mesic or most xeric. It is a graphic reminder of this major fact of life on the range:
Available (=effective soil water is the most universally limiting factor in range plant survival, growth, and reproduction. Soil water available for plant use is the single most important factor in determining species distribution, plant community productivity and, ultimately, yield of range animal products (meaning ranch income).

"All Hell needs is water." (Attributed to General Phillip H. Sheridan as his comeback when he was told that all Texas needed was water. This assessment was a response to Sheridan’s initial conclusion: “If I owned Hell and Texas I would live in Hell and rent out Texas”.

Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601.

3. Gallery forest in Flint Hills tallgrass prairie- This is a veiw standing in virgin tallgrass prairie of the Four Horsemen prairie grasses (big bluestem is dominant and eastern gamagrass is the main associate with Baldwin ironweed the conspicuous forb) looking into a gallery forest dominated by bur and chinquapin oaks (Quercus muhlenbergii) and common or western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and American or white elm (Ulmus americana) as associates. A gallery forest describes the narrow forest community that grows along the corridor of a water course. It is not only the riparian vegetation that grows directly in the hydric habitat but also forest vegetation growing beyond wet soil. The physiogonomy and mosaic pattern at this close distance resembles that of the Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). Kings Creek, Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, early August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]).

4. Famed Flint Hills-Strong grass = good steer country. Four Horsemen grasses with lots of forbs such as lead plant (Amorpha canescens) and wild alfalfa or scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia).Riley County, Kansas. July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally.

5. Flint Hills bluestem prairie range- Long-yearling (more like just shy of two-year-olds) steers (some weighing in excess of 700 pounds) grazing tallgrass prairie in the Flint Hills cuesta (so named for a thin, veneerlike mantle of flint and chert overlaying Permian limestone). This is an example of the famed Flint Hills of Kansas (the formation extends some distance into northern Oklahoma) often regarded as one of the greatest natural cattle pastures on Earth and second only to the equally famous and fabulous tallgrass prairie of the Sand Hills of Nebraska.

Precisely speaking, much of the general tallgrass prairie pasture region in central and eastern parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska and the western portion of Missouri that are known generically as the Flint Hills are actually several geologically distinctive portions of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Even in Kansas, most of the tallgrass (bluestem) prairie was in geologic units separate and distinct from the Flint Hills as strictly defined geologically. These other physiographic units include the Cherokee Prairie, Osage Questa, Chautauqua Hills, Glaciated Region, and Wellington and McPherson Lowlands. The Osage Questa and Flint Hills units with their limestone excarpments and adjacent proximity closely resemble each other (as can be seen by comparison of slides from both). The Chautauqua Hills sub-province is distinguished geologically by thick sandstone bedrock, but as it wedges up into the Osage Questa as a narrow peninsula and forms part of historical political units and famous grazing grounds like Osage County (Reservation), Oklahoma this distinctive unit is lumped as "Flint-- sometimes, Osage-- Hills".

Students are referred throughout this web publication to the timeless classic two-volume set on United States physiography by Fenneman. For geologic units just listed see Fenneman (1938, ps. 605-618). In some years the Kansas Official Transportation Map clearly delinates these physiographic units.

Big bluestem was easily the dominant on this steer range with Indiagrass and upland switchgrass coming in as "runners-up". Prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), little bluestem, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) were well-represtented but relatively rare. The most common forb was Illinhois bundleflower, but it had been grazed so heavily as to be less conspicuous than invader forbs like Baldwin ironweed and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). A fenceline contrast comparing utilization of palatable forbs under heavier early stocking (Intensive Early Stocking or a grazing practice similar to it) for this same pasture and herd was presented in the following slide.

Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. Viewers should bear in mind that big bluestem, the dominant species of the vegetation seen here, is a short shoot or "culmless" grass that does not elongate the culm above the basal leaves until late in the growing season (usually late July or early August in this location). As such, on bluestem prairie the namesake "tallgrass" growth habit does not occur (and therefore the characteristic physiogonomy of tallgrass prairie is not apparent) until late in the growing season. This is often in the autumnal aspect.

FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically.

6. Visual comparison of ungrazed vegetation of bluestem prairie to that grazed by steers under heavier stocking early in the growing season- The ungrazed sward in the foreground was just outside the fence from the big bluestem-dominated range shown in the preceding slide. The area (both sides of the fence) had been burned off at onset of the current growing season (ie. "this spring"). Foliar cover of Illinois bundleflower was obviously greater where protected from grazing (which in this instance was more intensive utilization in the first part of the growing season). The grass in the immediate foreground was switchgrass, a long shoot species (one that elongates its culm and apical meristem higher earlier in the growing season).

Some cattlemen and range-leasing landowners either suspect or have concluded from their personal observations that heavier stocking, and consequent heavier degrees of use, early in the growing (= warm) season reduced populations of the more palatalble forbs, espcially legumes. Limited scientific data have been presented on responses of tallgrass prairie forbs to Intensive-Early Stocking. Owensby et al. (1988) reported that there were no consistent differences among stocking rate treatments on Intensive-Early Stocking of Flint Hills bluestem range, but their data and conclusions were of forb biomass only. Owensby et al. (1988) were not specific as to responses of individual species of forbs. It was not shown whether biomass, cover, density, etc. changed among decreasers like Illinois bundleflower and Maxmillian sunflower versus invaders like western ragweed. Was biomass of certain species the same under Intensive-Early Stocking as under traditional management or did biomass of decreasers decline while biomass of invaders increased (or vice versa)? The author was told by some landowners that management involving heavier stocking early in the growing season (either Intensive-Early Stocking or similar grazing management) had adverse impacts on decreaser forbs, especially legumes (eg. personal communication, R.E. Lenington, DVM, MS, Cedar Vale, Kansas).

Flint Hills portion of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically.

7. Stockers on Osage spring range- Okie steers from Florida on a loamy prairie range site of the bluestem-Indiagrass prairies in the Osage Questas section of the Central Lowlands. Note physiography of the land and height of the tallgrasses after only one month of growth and relatively heavy stocking. Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma, May.

8. Greening up and shedding off- Spring in the Osage brings green-up of the perennial grasses (mostly of Andropogoneae and Paniceae tribes) from their root crowns or proaxes (proaxis is the lowest portion of a grass shoot where the nodes/internodes are stacked close atop one another and where shoot emergence takes place; the point of union of shoot and root portions). Meanwhile the buffalo are shedding their heavy winter pelage or “coats” (buffalo hides were known to buffalo runners, the proper name for buffalo hunters, as “robes” and they called the hair “wool”). The two range sites of Loamy Bottomland and Loamy Upland (for the Osage Questas physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands) are visibly divided by the different shades of green in the newly emerged grasses and grasslike plants on this tallgrass prairie. The plants immediately adjacent to the ephemeral stream are spike rush (Eleocharis spp.). Behind this is a zone of switchgrass distinguishable by last year’s dead stalks. Big bluestem dominates the Loamy Upland range site behind. Note the buffalo wallow (and consequent soil erosion) on the ridgeline. Range students should nevr lose sight of the fact that the ecological interaction known as herbivory includes more than actual defoliation. Trambling and even erosion of bare soil are a natural part of herbiivory as are dunging (a form of both defoliation as well as nutrient recycling), propagule dispersal, etc. Tallgras Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

9. Upland tallgrass (bluestem) prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and prairie dropseed the associate species on this Osage Questa stocked with steers under Intensive Early Stocking. Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the next two important species (based on both apparent dominance and biomass or herbage production). There were some invaders like Baldwin ironweed, Johnsongrass, curly dock (Rumex crispus), tall fescue, and smooth bromegrass. Silver bluestem and buffalograss were the major native grasses that were in the increaser and invader categories, respectively. Decreaser forbs included Maxmillian sunflower, compass plant, Illinois bundleflower, and leadplant.

Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), probably more specifically.

10. Bluestem prairie grazed by stockers- Tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem with prairie dropseed as the associate being grazed by a mixed (both steers and heifers) herd of stocker cattle under Intensive Early Stocking. Note the degree of use on this bluestem-dropseed tallgrass range at beginning of summer (mid-June). Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the other two of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies grasses that were abundant on this outstanding natural pasture. Little bluestem frequently ranks a distant fourth among the Four Horsemen on tallgrass prairie pastures in the Osage-Flint Hills sections of the Central Lowland grasslands. Illinois bundleflower and leadplant were present but heavily grazed.

The main mid-grass species was sideoats grama; the most common shortgrass species were hairy grama and buffalograss. Mid- and shortgrass species were restricted to localized microsites (perhaps formed partly by spotgrazing). In species composition (density, cover, biomass, etc.) these latter groups constituted nothing even approaching their proportions typical of mixed prairie. A mere listing of species on this form of tallgrass prairie likely would not be different from a species list taken on mixed prairie, except for an occasional species. The difference is in relative proportion of the same, rather than in different, species of grasses. (The swards presented in these slides of tallgrass prairie should be compared to those of mixed prairie in that portion of this publication.)

There were traces of three introduced (agronomic) grasses that would automatically be classified as invaders and that purist prairiemen regard as weeds: smooth bromegrass, tall fescue, and Johnsongrass.

This range had been fired approximately two months prior to this photograph. Tallgrass prairies used for stocker ranges in this "neck of the woods" are traditionally burnt just before green-up each spring, or at least every few years. Otherwise, in instances where cattlemen lease range from local landowners, stocker operators demand a lower pasture rental fee.

Osage Questa sub-unit of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Limestone is the underlying parent material. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

11. Steers and heifers grazing tallgrass prairie range in the Osage Questa portion of the once vast bluetem prairie region. Note the thrifty condition and degree of finish on these cattle. They are literally grass-fat which attest to the "strength" (high nutritive value) of this native forage. Degree of use and herbage cover on the land is typical of Intensive Early Stocking which was being used on this range. Close-up of the same range and herd presented in the preceding slide.

12. The Missouri Natural Areas Committee recognized 14 "prairie natural communities". These were based on a hypothetical topographic-geologic transect, but this relief alignment was itself based on a hypothetical chresard profile (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80). This was a generic, theoretical soli catena (catena was defined and illustrated in a succeeding photograph and caption). Soil was not the basis of the types or kinds of prairie other than delineation of alluvium and loess and parent material was not a factor except to show depth to limestone or chert, sandstone, or sand. As such these were not the equivalent of range sites. The Soil Conservation Service did not designate range sites in Missouri. In fact, the SCS in Missouri did not even speak to the matter of range or rangeland The next three slides show examples of some kinds of prairies in Missouri and an adjacent county in Kansas based on the Missouri Natural Areas Committee System.
The 14 Missouri prairie communities were: 1) Dry prairie, 2) Dry-mesic prairie, 3) Mesic prairie, 4) Wet-mesic prairie, 5) Wet prairie, 6) Dry limestone/dolomite prairie, 7) Dry-mesic limestone/dolomite prairie, 8) Dry chert prairie, 9) Dry-mesic chert prairie, 10) Dry sandstone/shale prairie, 11) Dry-mesic sandstone/shale prairie, 12) Dry sand prairie, 13) Dry-mesic sand prairie, and 14) Hardpan prairie.

13. Hardpan Prairie- Little bluestem and upland switchgrass dominate this shallow upland range site in the bluestem prairie region. Prairie dropseed is the main associate but Indiangrass and big bluestem are prominent and contribute substantially to cover and biomass. There is a "healthy"array of forbs, mainly composites. The four visibly prominent purple inflorescences are of showy or elegant gayfeather (Liatris elegans). This delightful prairie has been used as a prairie hay meadow for years. Although tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory prairie savanna are the climatic climax for this region the unique species composition of this grassland is edaphic. A claypan overlaying a seam of coal causes a perched water table of acidic groung water and a soil pH of 4.7. This combination favors prairie dropseed, especially, and little bluestem, secondly, rather than the regional dominants of big bluestem and Indiangrass. The shallow but mesic soil and perched watertable explains upland switchgrass. This form of tallgrass prairie is in the Ozark Plateau or Ozark Highlands physiographic province.

Stoney Point Prairie, Dade County, Missouri. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Hardpan Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

14. The "Sea of Grass" is far from monotonous- A landscape-scale scene of tallgrass prairie the Cherokee Prairie Region (the Cherokee Lowlands section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) may look like sameness or monotony to the "unth degree" to newcomers, but to trained eyes of prairiemen it is anything uniform.

The vast interior of continents was the birthplace of the zonal concept. In this context zonal refers or is applied to "features (eg. soils and vegetation) characteristic of a particular region that is approximately bounded by lines of latitude (ie. a region lying parallel to the equator" (Allaby, 1998) This is the usage that was the basis of newer conceptual views of large spatial scale ecology such as ecoregion (= ecosystem region) as applied in Ecosystem Geography (Bailey, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2002). The earliest application of the zonal perspective to soils has been traced to formal usage in soil classification systems by Russian soil scientists especially Dokuchaev (see for eg. Baldwin et al. in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, p. 980; Fanning and Fanning, 1989, ps. 141-149 passim). Zonal was basis of the first effort at a comprehensive soil system in the United States, the organization of which was into zonal, intrazonal, and azonal soils (Soil Classification in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, ps. 979-1001).

In the Bailey (1995, 1996, 1998) Ecosystem Geography view the intermediate spatial heirarchial unit is the landscape mosaic, or simply landscape, "a geographical group of site-level ecosystems" in which site is the range site level (Bailey, 1996, ps. 22-25, 169). Some authors recognized the catena unit as another spatial unit in the heirarchy intermediate between landscape and range site. Archer and Smeins in Heitschmidt and Stuth (1991, ps. 110-112) applied catena in this way: "A catena is comprised of linked ecosystems. The landscape is a hierarchial level comprised of catenas".

Catena in this scheme is obviously the catena used in Soil Science. The Soil Science Society of American (2001) defined catena distinguised it from toposequence.Catena was defined as "a sequence of soils of about the same age, derived from similar parent material, and occurring under similar commatic conditions, but having different characteristics due to variation in relief and in drainage" while a toposequence was "a sequence of related soils that differ, one from the other, primarily because of topography as a soil-formation factor".

Across the portion of landscape mosaic of tallgrass prairie presented above there were probably two or three catenas. There were innumerable hypothetical toposequencial transects that could be measured across the grassland ecosystem (or, depending on spatial scale of study, ecosystems), but this was a catena not a toposequence because drainage regimes were considerably different on the various range sites comprising this landscape.

Using the "prairie natural communities" catena sequence of the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80) that were listed above there were three Missouri prairie communities across the tallgrass prairie landscape shown in this photograph: 1) Mesic, 2) Wet-Mesic, and 3) Wet Prairies.

Major grasses were the Four Horseman of the Prairies species, prairie dropseed, and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). Composites were by far the major forbs. The most conspicuous at time of photograph was prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), a specimen of which was featured in left foreground.

This general geologic region is in the Osage (= Osage Plains) section of the Central Lowland physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 passim), most specifically the Cherokee (or Nevada) Lowlands of the Osage section (Fenneman, 1938, p. 612-613). This region was unglaciated. It is bounded to the southeast by the Ozark Plateaus (= Ozark Uplands) physiographic province and to the west by the Osage Questas section of Central Lowlands. Osage Plains Natural Division (Nelson, 1987, ps. 3 [2-5], 77).

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic Prairie, Wet-Mesic Prairie, and Wet Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

15. Patchwork of tallgrass prairie communities- A vegetational mosaic had developed on this slope of tallgrass prairie in the Cherokee Lowlands physiographic province. Vegetation in foreground (a draw or depression at foot of hill slope) comprised a Wet Prairie community dominated by Carex species with prairie cordgrass and bottomland switchgrass being associates. Background vegetation consisted of two subforms of Wet-Mesic Prairie: a drier subform dominated in roughly equal portions by big bluestem, Indiangrass, and paririe dropseed (left background) and a more mesic subform that was a consociation of prairie cordgrass (right background).

This pattern of different tallgrass prairie plant communities at small range site-scale was result of drainage that followed topographic patterns. For those who can truly see (ie. comprehend or understand) and describe vegetation, tallgrass prairie is often extremely varied over relatively small spatial scale. Tallgrass prairie vegetation is far from homogenous.

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet Prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

16. Consociation amid complexity- A natural single species-stand of prairie cordgrass had developed on a mid-slope above a wet (frequently ponded) depression (see immediately preceding slide). This stand of cordgrass might have been a colony of one genotypic plant rather than a population of several genetic individuals of prairie cordgrass. It was as uniform a crop as any farmer could dream of, but this small "patch" of cordgrass was within (inside of) a larger and diverse range plant community of tallgrass grassland.

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet-Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

17. More complexity and species richness in the resources-rich habitat of a tallgrass prairie range- Wet Prairie community (foreground) consisting of several sedge (Carex) and umberella or flat sedge (Cyperus) species was in the foreground of this photograph. The two conspicuous grasslike plant species in the foreground were the umberella sedge, also known as green or marsh flatsedge(Cyperus virens= C. pseudovegetus), smaller plants, and straw-colored flatsedge (C. strigosus), larger and taller plants. The prominent white-flowered forb was common mountain mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum).

Mesic-Wet Prairie community was in background. Dominated by prairie cordgrass with big bluestem as associate. The Wet Prairie and Mesic-Wet Prairie communities were distinct and without apparent transition zones between them. Likewise there was no prominent transition between Mesic-Wet Prairie communities and Mesic Prairie communities upslope from them except for increasing predominance of big bluestem and sudden appearance of high cover of Indiangrass.

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No.. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri prairie).

18. Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie- This tallgrass prairie in the regional Cherokee Prairie is in the Cherokee Lowlands subunit of the Central Lowlands. This physiographic unit joins the Ozark Plateau immediately to its east. Two of the Missouri kinds or categories of prairie (“prairie natural communities”) are seen here. Overall, big bluestem is the dominant species but in wet depressions of the Wet-Mesic Prairie form species of Carex and Scirpus dominate. On raised, drier microsites of the Mesic Prairie needle-and-thread is common (visible as a purplish color). At this early summer season the short-shoot big bluestem has not elongated its culm so the tallgrass physiogonomy is not apparent and the grassland instead resembes a mid-grass or mixed praririe. Switchgrass is present only as an associate on this mesic to hydric water regime because by mid-summer to autumn the soil is typically relatively dry reflecting the precipitation pattern (ie. June is the wettest month of the year and the soil is driest by August or September).

Crawford County, Kansas. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

19. Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie- This tallgrass prairie is in close proximity to the Mesic and Wet-mesic kinds of prairie in the previous slide and is also part of the former magnificant regional Cherokee Prairie which joins (what is left of it) the magnificant Flint Hills physiographic province and its famed bluestem range. This is also a Four Horsemen of the Prairies tallgrass form and big bluestem is also dominant overall, but prairie dropseed, little bluestem, and needle-and-thread can individually or collectively dominate locally. The foreground is the dry-mesic chert form while the background is the dry chert form.

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

20. Species-rich tallgrass prairie range community- This Mesic Prairie community in the Cherokee Prairie Region was dominated by the Four Horseman of the Prairies species (big bluestem and Indiangrass were prominent) plus prairie dropseed. Eastern gamagrass was also locally abundant. Most notable on this grassland range community, however, was the remarkable diversity of forbs in combination with dominance of decreaser tallgrass species. Forb species included black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), the conspicuous yellow-flower composite, prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), several goldenrod (Solidago) species, Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), compass plant (Silphium laciniatum), and common horsemint or wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa). And all of these listed grass and forb species in the frame of this one photograph!

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie).

21. Heartland Garden of Eden: quintessential tallgrass prairie range- Here was tallgrass prairie in its ultimate expression as the climatic climax of its zone. Mesic Prairie community with big bluestem (just reaching anthesis stage; many sexually reproductive shoots still in the boot) the dominant and Indiangrass the associate species. This outstanding example was from a gradual mid-slope upland site in close proximity to the species-rich example shown in the immediately preceding photograph. Both of these "photo-plots" were in the Cherokee Prairie Region. This was in the Cherokee Lowlands portion of the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 [esp. 612-613]).

At one time this general area was known for its world-class prairie hay. Several towns and counties in southwest Missouri and southeast kansas are the self-proclaimed "Prairie Hay Caipital of the World". Obviously there is no "one right answer", but the assertion of Minden Mines, Missouri for this coveted title bears special merit.

Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missosuri Prairie).

22. The healing sward of tallgrass prairie- This view of the sward — the aboveground portion of the vegetation of marsh, meadow, or grassland; the herbaceous surface of a grassland or other graminoid-dominated community —of tallgrass prairie shows the characteristic combination of cespitose (clumped or tufted ) grasses or bunchgrasses that reproduce asexually (vegetatively) with tillers (vertical or intravaginated shoots) and the sod-forming grasses that reproduced vegetatively with rhizomes and/or stolons (extravaginated or horizonal shoots belowground and aboveground, respectively). Some grasses such as big bluestem, which is the dominant species here, and Indiangrass and switchgrass, the main associates in this community, have both tillers and extravaginated shoots like rhizomes (in all three of these species). Other grasses are strictly bunchgrasses with shoots limited to tillers like prairie dropseed the third associate seen in this view.

Note to beginning students: shoot is the above ground portion of grass and includes culm (grass stem), leaves, and inflorescence. Tiller is not a synonym for shoot except when the shoot is tiller, a vertical intravaginated shoot. Tiller is not the generic for shoot. It is incorrect to speak or write of “tiller dynamics” when shoots being discussed include stolons (“runners”) or rhizomes. Then it is shoot dynamics. Freshman Agronomy 105.

This virgin sod (sod is the combination of roots and the soil they hold or bind; it is the belowground strata of grassland, marsh, or meadow and usually connotes the first few inches of aboveground vegetation) shows the perfect soil- protecting capacity of shoot and root of grass. It also illustrates the erosion-healing feature of grass. Note the “haired-over” old gully in the background. Senator Ingalls of Kansas had it right: “Grass is the forgiveness of nature…”

There are various species of forbs in this Excellent range condition sward but as typical for pristine prairie, the great bulk of biomass (weight of living orgamisms or, more precisely, the live weight of organisms) is contributed by the grasses, and often just two up to maybe five or six species (four in the example seen here). This is mid-estival aspect with the grasses in the boot stage (the phenological stage in which the inflorescence is is still enclosed or enveloped by sheath of uppermost leaf). The short- shoot grasses (those which do not elevate their apical meristem until later in the growing season) like big bluestem are just beginning to elongate their culms. July.

Based on herbage yield, palatabability and nutritive value of growing forage, resilence (recovery) from disturbance, soil formation capability, habitat for number of wildlife species, and contributions to Indian and cowboy culture, this is perhaps the greatest natural pasture in North America if not on Earth. God’s own cow country; a rangeman’s Garden of Eden.

Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (the former Chapman-Barnard Ranch) Osage County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

23. Mima mound topography- Mima mounds are frequently characteristic of the virgin sod of tallgrass and true prairies. These "prairie pimples", "Indian mounds", or "meadow biscuits" have long intrigued prairie hay makers as well as ecologists. Laymen and scientists alike have advanced pet explanations for this unique example of micro-topography. This pattern of microrelief (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993, ps. 69-70) is similar to the gilgai phenomenon, but the cause(s) are not as obvious as in the shrink-swell of gilgai clay soils. Knight (1994, ps. 125-130) discussed these “puzzling landscape features” in the Laramie Basin as to their origin and possible effect on vegetation. While this microrelief has received quite a bit of study (Knight provided numerous citations) findings are still inconclusive though mound vs. intermound vegetation is characteristically different.. That is the situation for this excellent condition prairie hay meadow in the Missouri Ozarks. Switchgrass and prairie cordgrass occupy the mounds while big bluestem and prairie dropseed dominate intermond soil. This is similar to the Clementsian concept of postclimax vegetation on deep sand sites (eg. tallgrass vegetation on sandhills in a semiarid mixed prairie region). Grasses of the mounds are clearly the more mesic species. The maroon flowers are those of tall winecup (Callirhoe digitata) which grows only on the mounds. This illustrates the concept of an indicator plant. Mima mounds are a textbook example of microhabitat or –environment within a range site. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri, July.

24. Prairie Cordgrass (Spartina pectinata)-dominated community of tallgrass prairie— Clay bottomland range site. Note wild indigo (Amorpha fruticosa).Anderson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). Bottomland variant of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant.

25. Prairie cordgrass or sloughgrass (Spartina pectinata) growing conspicuously in a slough on tallgrass prairie- This species and the local low spot appeared quite pronounced in a dry year. Spartina was derived from the Greek, spartinae, meaning "cords" probably in reference to the tough leaves (Hitchcock and Chase, 1951, p. 508), but many know this particular species more by its major habitat of small damp draws called sloughs. Ecologists like John Weaver (1954, ps. 31-33) more commonly called this most water-requiring of all the major tallgrass species sloughgrass or tall marshgrass. Weaver (1954, p. 33) noted that sloughgrass was "the last stage in the succession from wet land or water to climax prairie" and that it formerly formed essentially single species-stands (consociation in the Clements-Weaver unit of climax vegetation) over hundreds of square miles of bottomland along watercourses such as the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Almost all of this riparian range (and that of the draws on upland prairies like the one shown here) was drained, plowed, and planted to row crops, especially corn. This relict stand is preserved on the Missouri Prairie State Park in Barton County, Missouri (formerly one of the leading prairie hay producing areas). Late estival aspect, September.

FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie, but as a subunit within tallgrass prairie that did not occur at the mapping scale used by Kucher). The SRM rangeland cover type designated Cordgrass (SRM 726) listed nine variants, but these were all for the Gulf Coast prairies and marshes. S. pectinata was not included in SRM 726. It might seem that the prairie cordgrass community would logically be included as part of the Bluestem Prairie designation (SRM 710), but this species, which forms an obviously distinct climax unit (a consociation), was quite properly not listed thereunder (it is it's own unique rangeland cover type). The SRM (Shiflet, 1994) just misssed it, plain and simple. This is somewhat surprising given the profound impact of Weaver and the University of Nebraska network on generations of rangemen. There should be a Prairie Cordgrass rangeland cover type with a specific and single SRM number and description. Given that the Society (Shiflet, 1994) designated Cordgrass and Sea Oats cover types within the Gulf Coast tallgrass prairie, a Prairie Cordgrass designation and description should be added (if for no other reason than consistenty of presentation). As with the current collection of slides, description of range cover types is an unfinished project.

26. Prairie cordgrass community- This was an example of the Spartina pectinata consociation that once made up thousands of acres of virgin wet or mesic prairie at the edge of marshes in the Central Lowlands region. It was probably the most productive of all the actual prairie communities with the possible exception of some parts of the bottomland switchgrass-Canada wildrye-eastern gamagrass community (Weaver, 1954, ps. 35-36). Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). A subunit of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie).SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), or more generally, SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie).

27. Inforescence of prairie cordgrass- Even the flower cluster of this productive prairie grass is big, rank, and tough. Weaver (1954, p. 33) explained that both Indians and white pioneers used this species as thatch for lodges, cabins, and even corn cribs. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July.

28. Prairie cordgrass- Flowering stalks of prairie cordgrass (famed Chimney Rock, before latest loss of spire height, in background). Morrill County, Nebraska. July.

29 Tallgrass prairie in its full glory (peak standing crop; maximum morphological development of tallgrasses at anthesis and fruit set) – This scene shows where “tallgrass” gets it’s name. A Loamy Bottomland range site in the Smokey Hills physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands in central Kansas dominated by bottomland switchgrass with big bluestem and Indiangrass as associates. Grasses exceed 8 feet in height on this fertile, high water-holding capacity soil. Drier range sites in this area are mixed prairie so tallgrass prairie is postclimax on the alluvial lowland site. The gallery forest growing along a creek in the background is dominated by eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) with bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) as the major associate.

The Smokey Hills is the geologic-physiogrphic unit immediately west of the Flint Hills which in turn is immediately west of the Osage Questas physiographic unit. Tallgrass prairie is the regional or climatic climax of the latter two and the eastern portion of the Smokely Hills. Geologic ages ago this region was covered by a sea. When the Indians had it to themselves it was a sea of grass.

Tallgrass prairie such as this is, among the herbaceous (not bamboo) grasslands, to the rangeman and grassland ecologist what the redwood forest is to the forester and forest ecologist.This is the ultimate expression of the grassland formation. Lincoln County, Kansas. Late estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 or 601 both designated as Bluestem Prairie), both the Northern and Southern Great Plains regions in Shiflet (1994) claimed the tallgrass prairies of Kansas (and any fool can see why!).

30. Autumnal aspect of tallgrass prairie as God and the redman knew it—Upland site dominated by Indiangrass; typical Four Horsemen with willow (Salix sp.), smooth and skunkbush sumac (Rhus glabra, R. trilobata = R. odorata) in draws. Smoky Hills, Maxwell Game Preserve, McPherson County, Kansas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie).

31. Another shot of fall aspect of Four Horsemen dominated-tallgrass prairie to show meaning of “tallgrass” relative to a two-year-old Longhorn bull.Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, Commanche County, Oklahoma.October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant.

32. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by prairie cordgrass (also called sloughgrass) with eastern gamagrass and bottomland switchgrass as two associate species. The conspicuous forbs are foxglove beard-tongue (Penstemon digitalis) which is nearing end of its flowering period and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) which is at late pre-bloom stage. Almost no grasslike plants such as Carex, Juncus, or Scirpus species were common.

The heavy clay soil of this bottomland retains so much moisture that prairie crawfish have dug numerous shafts and thrown up short earthen chimneys throughout the ground of what is one of the largest and most pristine examples remaining of this rare type of tallgrass prairie. So far this priceless representative of the once vast North American prairie has been protected by it's use as an unbelievably productive hay meadow.

Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Central Lowland physiographic province. This is a part of the general Osage Section of the overall Central Lowland province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601(Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

33. Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.

34. Shoot apex of foxglove beard-tongue (Penstomenon digitalis)- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May.

35. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by eastern gamagrass with bottomland switchgrass the general associate species (locally the dominant) with prairie cordgrass the third major grass species. This was a separate hay meadow adjoining the one shown in the last photograph of wet prairie, but here prairie cordgrass came in third behind the other two bottomland prairie species.

This was another example of one of the most beautiful bottomland tallgrass prairies the author was ever blessed to enjoy.

Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

36. Upland tallgrass prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and eastern gamagrass was the associate species on this form of bluestem praire. Forbs included leadplant, Illinois bundleflower, purple milkweed (Asclepias purpurea), and the naturalized yellow sweet clover (Melilois officinalis). Even on this virgin tallgrass prairie in "mint condition" there were occasional plants of smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea).

Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601(Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

37. Tallgrass form in Blackland Prairie of Texas-Less than 1/10 of 1% of original "Waxy Land" Prairie remains. Here in Tridens Prairie (Lamar County, Texas) is a rare upland site dominated by eastern gammagrass or, to locals, corngrass (Tripsacum dactyloides) and switchgrass. Also present arebluestems, tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper), longspike tridens (Tridensstrictus), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum) as well as forbs like rattlesnake master or snake-root eryngo (Eryngium yuccifolium) and giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima ). Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie). SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

38. Texas Blackland Prairie- The blackland or waxy land prairie has all but vanished. Less than 0.1 % of the original blackland prairie remains. The rest fell before the plow and other forms of intensive agriculture and commerce. This is a rare remnant of what was once a distinct form of tallgrass prairie. The grassland community seen here is on a hog wallow (gilgai) microrelief prairie formed by a Vertisol of montmorillonite clay that has high water-holding capacity. This edaphic habitat is dominated by eastern gamagrass, switchgrass and tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper). The conspicuous forb is yuccaleaf ernygo (Eryngium yuccifolium) but there are many other species of forbs, especially composites like giant coneflower (Rudbekia maxima), ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis), and three goldenrod (Solidago) species. Numerous genera and families of forbs are represented as for example the bright pink corolla in the left foreground which is wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis).

The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass), Blackland range site. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

39. Graylands form of Blackland Prairie- Adjacent to the hog wallow prairie dominated by mesic tallgrass species is a droughty, acidic soil site with the unique Sylvanus or silver dropseed (Sporobolus sylveanus)-dominated prairie with Mead sedge (Carex meadii) as a local co-dominant and switchgrass, Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum), and rosette panicgrasses (Panicum oligosanthes and/or P. scribnerianum) are associates. Several species of less mesic forbs also occur on graylands but they contribute relatively little biomass to the total range plant community. The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

40. Texas blackland or waxyland prairie- This is another Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie but with several dropseeds including prairie dropseed and tall dropseed, longspike tridens (Tridens strictus), Florida paspalum, and cool-season grasses including Canada wildrye and Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus). The dominant mid-grass is sideoats grama. Texas wintergrass (Stipa leucotricha) is present but only as a spring associate or local dominant and not as a dominant of the peak standing crop community. This tallgrass community is typical of Texas prairies in that the nearly universal dominants are little bluestem and Indiangrass or little bluestem as the dominant and Indiangrass as the major associate with the other grasses varying by microsite.

There are numerous microsites on this prairie as it includes the complete sequence of blackland soils with the hog wallow (= gilgai) and mima mound relief. The latter form of microtopography occurs on clay loam or “greyland” soils. In typical prairie “fashion” there are numerous species of forbs (mostly composites). While these forbs are conspicuous they comprise relatively little of the biomass or plant cover. Dominant forbs include the yellow-flowered rough-stem or rough-leaf rosin weed (Silphium radula) and compassplant (S. laciniatum) and the annual American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana).

The prairie seen here is the least mesic upland form of blackland (in contrast to the clay soil upland prairie represented by the preceding slide of Tridens Prairie). One of the soil series present in isolated patches is the classic Houston black clay. Many of the depressions, especially those of Houston black clay, host the the unusual prairie cray(w)fish (Procambarus gracilis) which sinks its shafts down to the wet soil layers, or perhaps to the surface aquifer beneath the virgin sod. This indicates that these prairie soils are more or less permanently wet. Though this is an upland prairie, it is a wet prairie with a hydric water regime (not a marsh of inundated soil with standing surface water but the next thing to it).

Trees along the edge of the photograph are part of a gallary forest along a prairie creek. Tree species at edge of prairie include cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), hedge apple or bois-d’arc (Maclura pomifera), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos).

The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof (the Blackland Prairie is more an extension of the tallgrass [Andropogon-Sorgastrum] prairie than the true [Sporobolus-Stipa] prairie as was incorrectly stated under 717 but it does contain dominant species of both). Clay Loam and trace of Loamy Prairie range sites. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairies Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

41. Detail of the tallgrass sward of Texas Blackland Prairie- This is a little bluestem-Indiangrass dominated tallgrass stand (the tallest and grey-green grass shoots are of Indiangrass) but associated species do contribute appreciable biomass and cover. Gramineae associates include Canada or nodding wildrye, Virginia wildrye, prairie dropseed, tall or meadow dropseed, and longspike tridens. Forb associates include rough-stem rosinweed, compassplant, American basketflower, and Maxmillian sunflower (composites are far more important than all other forb families combined). It should be specified that the dominant cool-season grasses are the wildryes and not Texas wintergrass. The SRM cover type title and description of Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass would be Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Wildrye for this variant, and this is a tallgrass prairie not a true prairie form.

The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof, Clay Loam range site.Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

42. American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana)- The niche of this native annual is interesting given that annuals, including this species, usually are more common on disturbed areas. Here on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie dominated almost exclusively by perennial grasses and forbs this annual composite is obviously plentiful and reproductively successful. This illustrates the great biodiversity possible on natural grassland communities. Clymer Prairie, Hunt Texas, July.

43. Beautiful false dragon's-head (Physostegia pulchella)- Yes, that was the long common name listed for this species by the definitive manual for the area (Diggs et al. 1999, p. 770) which called this "the most common Phyostegia of the Blackland Prairie". Another common name for many of the Physostegia species is obedient-plant which originated from the feature whereby individual flowers remain in the position in which they were placed by human hands (or other forces like wind).

Physostegia species are members of the mint family (Labiatae) which is often one of the families best represented on prairies and adjoining forests and savannas. This dense stand (which was grown under cultivation for ornamental purposess) illustrated the rhizomatous characteristic of this genus.

44. Inflorescence of obedient-plant (P. virginiana)- This is another Physostegia species found on the Blackland Prairie (Diggs et al., 1999, p. 770). Like the preceding species this one was grown under cultivation.

45. Texas bluegrass (Poa arachnifera) in the Texas Western Cross Timbers- Throughout the southern two-thirds (or more) of the North American tallgrass, true, mixed, and shortgrass prairies and plains warm-season grasses are far more pre-dominant and important than cool-season species on basis of species number and biomass production. This is more the case the farther south grassland vegetation extends because numbers of panicoid and eragrostoid species increase while festucoid grasses decrease with southward progression (conversely the proportion of festucoid species increases with northward progression in the continental grasslands). Usually, however, there are some warm-season grasses in the north and some cool-season grass species in southern grasslands. Texas bluegrass is one of the these southern cool-season grasses. It is one of the more conspicuous and locally dominant festucoid grasses in the southern latitude grasslands. This dioecious rhizomatous species sometimes forms exclusive colonies at microsite scale especially on deep sand sites as seen here in the Cross Timbers of northcentral Texas. These colonies can be bisexual or largely monosexual suggesting that like buffalograss they are monoclonal (consisting of one genotype or genetic individual as a clonal organism). Two things are certain about Texas bluegrass: 1) it is a species that is highly palatable to grazing animals and 2) it is perceived by human eyes to be an extremely attractive plant. In regards the second point, many native plant fanciers rank Texas bluegrass among their favorite prairie species which gives this grass value for natural landscaping. The rancher and landscaper find common cause in this unique grass.

46. Texas bluegrass (Poa arachnifera)- A climax cool season species of the tallgrass prairies and Cross Timbers of central Texas. Prairie hay meadow, Erath County, Texas, April.

47. Inflorescence of female Texas bluegrass- The female panicle of Texas bluegrass is larger than the male, but both are quite attractive. Texas bluegrass shares the common diagnostic feature of the florets of Poa species: the “cobwebby” lemma of the pistillate florets due to presence of cottony like hairs on the callus of the lemma. The specific epithet, arachnifera, refers to arachnid or spider.

48. Male plant of Texas bluegrass- Flowering of male Texas bluegrass just before anthesis. Vernal aspect, April. Young County, Texas.

49. Two examples of little bluestem colonies- Little bluestem, prairie beardgrass, broom beardgrass, or common beardgrass (Andropogon scoparius= Schizachyrium scoparium) was probably the single most important range grass across pre-Columbian North America. This was likely true based on geographical range of the species, the total quantity of animal feed it produced (say, measured as Animal Unit Months), and the land area (acreage) on which this species was the dominant or co-dominant plant species. Hitchcock and Chase (1951, p. 754) showed little bluestem as occurring in every state of the Union except Nevada, California, Oregon and Washington. Little bluestem is found in the three Canadian Prairie Provinces (Looman and Best,1987, ps. 96-98) and as far eastward in Canada as Ontario. It occurrs in the Chihuhuna Desert, but not in the Sonoran Desert.

With loss of most of the original tallgrass, true, and mixed prairies (and the more favorable sites therein) to the plow much of the original cover of little bluestem was destroyed. Less of the virgin range dominated by blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) was plowed so a shortgrass species that was substantially less widespread and lower-yielding has now likely surpassed the bluestem and other tallgrass prairie species in importance as a range plant. If the contemporary interpretation of "little bluestem" is accepted such that this is a complex of taxa that were formerly interpreted as being distinct species the enlarged S. scoparium may still be the most important range plant in North America based on the criteria specified above. Examples of bluestems or beardgrasses formerly treated as distinct species by agrostologists like Hitchcock and Chase (1951) that were reinterpreted as subspecies or varieties and "lumped" in the enlarged, "umbrella" S. scoparium by more recent taxonomists like Gould (1975) and Allen (1992) included pinehill bluestem (Andropogon divergens= S. scoparium var. divergens), seacoast bluestem (A. littoralis= S. scoparium var. littoralis), New Mexico little bluestem (A. neomexicanus= S. scoparium var. neomexicanum).

Little bluestem often forms naturally occurring single species stands, the Clementsian consociation, over large areas and is a co-dominant (or at least a major species) on many range sites. Dense populations of this least mesic of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies species often occur as vast natural "fields". Such stands are extremely productive of biomass and serve as examples of why defoliation of herbage whether by grazing animals or fire is so important to mainteance of grassland. The heavy yields of biomass and high density of tillers in these two populations will result in excessive accumulations of dead plant material unless reduced by grazing and/or fire. The build-up of excess mulch will effective exclude light from basal portions of the little bulestem plants the following spring and delay "green-up" and retard plant growth and herbage production during the ensuing growing season.

Both stands of little bluestem shown in these photographs were in the Western Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational area of northcentral Texas (Erath County) and at peak standing crop. The stand in the first slide was on a Bottomland range site in late fall (the latter part of October). The stand in the second slide was on a Rolling Prairie range site in anthesis during early fall (late September).

50. Little bluestem plants- The cespitose habit of little bluestem was illustrated by these plants growing on a Rolling Prairie range site in a portion of the Grand Prairie in the Western Cross Timbers and Prairie land resource area of Texas. Unlike big bluestem, Indiangrass, and switchgrass (the other three of the Four Horsemen tallgrass species) little bluestem is not rhizomatous. All secondary shoots are intravaginal (vertical shoots designated as tillers or often, among farmers and stockmen, "stools"). As such little bluestem is never a sod-forming grass although individual plants (genetically distinct individuals) frequently grow so close together as to form a prairie sod or dense sward.

51. Single plant of little bluestem- Little bluestem is the one common dominant grass of the tallgrass prairie that is strictly cespitose (ie. a bunchgrass or tussock grass). Older individual plants form large tussocks like this one which had a basal cover of over two and a half feet feet. This growth is in effect asexual reproduction by increase in numbers of tillers (intravaginal, hence upright, shoots). Little bluestem also flowers prolifically (shown in slides below), but this sexual reproduction is generally not as efficient as asexual reproduction. This is especially the case in established swards. Most of the tillers of this plant had advanced phenologically to become flowering shoots. Portion of Grand Prairie on Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.

52. Flowering shoots of little bluestem- Both anthers and filaments of stamen as well as stigma were visible on the sexually reproductive tillers of little bluestem presented in these two slides. Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath Cpounty, Texas.. September.

53. Anthesis in little bluestem- This close-up view of staminate and pistillate organs in little bluestem was presented as another example of flower structure in the Gramineae. Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.

54. Inflorescences of little bluestem- Sexually reproductive shoots of little bluestem at seed-ripe stage. Inflorescences of the bluestem or sorghum tribe (Andropogoneae) have typically been interpreted as racemes. Chase (1964, p. 82) described the arrangement of the Andropogon flower cluster as having racemes "borne on numerous slender leafy branches arising in the axils of leaves on the main culm or branches, the whole forming a compound inflorescence". Other workers like Highnight et al. (1988, p. 8) labeled this inflorescence type as a spicate raceme. The rachis is jointed and falls apart upon maturity resulting in the shattering of grains. Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.

55. Raceme of little bluestem- This spicate raceme had advanced to the seed-ripe stage just before the next phenological stage of seed-shatter. The spikelets are paired: one perfect and sessile, the other sterile and pedicellate, with two florets per fertile spikelet. These two florets (in the fertile spikelet) are as follows: one floret is perfect and terminal and the other (the lower) floret is present only as a sterile lemma. The paired spikelets fall entire and together, the sterile pediceled spikelet attached to the fertile sessile spikelet, from the jointed rachis of the compound spicate raceme. The individual branches of this compound raceme are often defined as a rame, an inflorescence branch which bears some pediceled and some sessile spikelets. Two entire rames and the basal part of a third rame were displayed in this slide.

Tarleton State University Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.

56. Basal portion of a shoot of little bluestem- It was explained above that little bluestem is strictly a cespitose species (a bunchgrass) the tillers (upright, intravaginal shoots) of which form a tussock habit. In spite of the rank or relatively coarse and large size of little bluestem the individual tillers are rather easily broken off at the ground level (ie. at or just above the root crown) of little bluestem plants. This was shown in these two photographs. In other words, even though this species evolved under heavy grazing and is well-adapted to defoliation even it can be damaged-- remarkable easy-- by imporper grazing, especially overuse (overstocking). In time, prolongued overuse leads to overgrazing and a change in species composition of the range plant community. Increasers and invaders are much less easily damaged than the tallgrasse species including little bluestem.

On a portion of the Grand Prairie on Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas. September.

57 Colony of big bluestem- Big bluestem is the dominant tallgrass species across much of the tallgrass (= bluestem) prairies that once extended from western Ohio and the Canadian Prairie Provinces to the central Dakotas and south through the Blackland Prairie and coastal prairie region of Texas, specially on soils having calcareous parent materials like limestone and dolomite. Big bluestem produces more sexually reproductive shoots under spring burning regimes as shown hereon the Konza Prairie (Riley County, Kansas, July).

58. Color namesake of big bluestem- This is an example of spring coloration for which bluestem (big bluestem in particular) was named. Technically the blue pigmentation is at tips of leaves not stems but blueleaf just does not have the poetic ring of names so characteristic of the frontier and rural folk in general. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. Estival aspect, June.

59. Inflorescence of big bluestem with the characteristic three rames (inflorescence branches bearing some pedicellate and some sessile spikelets) from which arrangement is derived another common name of turkey track. Ottawa County, County Oklahoma, August.

60. Rame of big bluestem- The anthers and stigmata were shown fully exerted on these spikelets of big bluestem at anthesis. Newton County, Missouri. September.

61. Autumn coloration of big bluestem- This colony of big bluestem at peak standing crop and seed-shatter stage illustrated the phenomenon of seasonal colors of the prairie. The grasslands-- most notably, tallgrass prairie-- of North America undergo color changes with progression of the seasons and phenological stages of the plants. This is the equivalent of seasonal color change in the deciduous forests that were often (sometimes still are) conterminous and intermixed with tallgrass-dominated grasslands and savannas. These are the seasonal aspects that have been noted periodically in this segment of the publication.

Autumnal aspect of tallgrass prairie was pronounced in this stand of big bluestem that was growing near the western extent of it's geographical range in central Texas. The ecotype shown here was scarcely four feet in height (four foot woven wire in immediate background) which was no taller than stands of little bluestem adjacent to this colony. (The far background was woody invasion of live oak, post oak, and mesquite on overgrazed tallgrass Grand Prairie range).

Mills County, Texas. October.

62. Sexually reproductive shoots of big bluestem- Grassses are regarded as reproducing by both sexual and asexual means. The latter is essentially multiplication of secondary shoots (tillers, rhizomes, or stolons) by vegetative growth (hence asexual reproduction is also known as vegetative reproduction). Perennial grasses typically reproduce more prolifically (and more effeciently/effectively) by vegetative reproduction than by sexual (grain production) means.

This is most pronounced in many of the prairie grasses native to North America. Flowering and fruit (caryopsis) production in these species is essentially a "luxury" action or physiological response. Going back to an early classic sutdy by Branson (1953) various authors have placed different grasses species into various groups based on certain characteristics. One of the more common of these groupings was a scheme based on location and timing of elongation of the apical meristem in combination with proportion of shoots that became sexually reproductive (Heady and Child, 1994. p.23). These authors placed big bluestem in the group described as having "infertile apices numerous and in or near the soil".

The relatively high proportion of big bluestem shoots that were developed infloresences and produced grains in this colony resulted from a summer that was considerably cooler and slightly wetter than was typical.

Mills County, Texas. October.

63. Inflorescences of big bluestem- Rames of big bluestem at the seed-ripe stage and in autumn coloration. Individual spikelets along the rachises were conspicuous in these unusually fertile and heavy yielding shoots. Mills County, Texas. October.

64. King and Queen of the Prairies- Big bluestem (right) and little bluestem (left) on a portion of Grand Prairie in the West Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational area of northcentral Texas. This was at the western edge (the least subhumid or least mesic part) of the species range for big bluestem in this land resoruce area (ie. habitat was marginal for big bluestem). Consequently big bluestem, King of the Prairies, had already matured and was at the seed-ripe (and fast approaching seed-shatter) stage while little bluestem, Queen of the Prairies, was still in the soft dough phenological stage.At this geographic location and on this range site (Laomy Prairie) the range environment was "prime habitat" for little bluestem, regional dominant of tallgrass prairie in central Texas, and this species was slightly later (slower) in it's annual cycle and lagged behind big bluestem, the general dominant tallgrass species across or "averaged over" the entire bluestem-Indiangrass prairie (such Kuchler units as K-66 and rangeland cover types as SRM 710, both designated Bluestem Prairie).

Astute observers will have noted that the ecotype of big bluestem growing on habitat marginal for this species produced shoots no larger (taller) than those of little bluestem. This phenomenon was not the general or typical condition relative to respective sizes of these species on tallgrass prairie. The usual size dimorphism was embodied by common names of the two species.

Mills County, Texas.

65. Indiangrass- The State Grass of Oklahoma is the major co-dominant with the bluestems, especially big bluestem, of the tallgrass prairie range type. Indiangrass is more abundant and the dominant grass on soils derived from sandstone parent material and is thus relatively more common south of the zone where big bluestem is the major dominant. Indiangrass is typically the tallgrass dominant over much of the Osage Questas and particularly the Chautauqua Hills portions of the Central Lowlands physiographic province south of the Flint Hills section. As shown here both species are herbaceous dominants in the forests and savannas of the Ozark Plateau section. Newton County, Missouri, October.

66. Colony of Indiangrass- These five to six feet-plus shoots of flowering Indiangrass at peak standing crop in a fencerow show the remarkable drought-tolerance of native tallgrass species. This biomass yield was at summer’s end in one of the most severe droughts in Texas history. It grew during the fourth year of a protracted drought, the last two growing seasons of which were drier than any two of the great drought of the 1950s. Shoots in this colony remained green throughout the entire duration of each growing season in the prolonged drought of the 1990s. Grand Prairie vegetation. Erath County, Texas. October.

67. Inflorescence of Indiangrass- This panicle (in anthesis) illustrates the resemblance of the flowering shoot of a dominant prairie grass to the arrow atop the head of an Indian brave and thus origin of the name Indiangrass. (By the way, the author finds it obvious that the first letter in this common name should properly and always be capitalized given that Indian is a proper noun. Incidentally, Indian— and not that horribly offensive, sickeningly affected, and incorrect invention “Native American”— is the correct, precise name for American aborigines.)

68. Inflorescence of eastern gamagrass at full anthesis with separate staminate and pistillate spikelets- This resemblance to the tassle of corn or maize (Zea mays)—both species are in tribe Maydeae or Tripsaceae—is origin of the other common name of corngrass. Ottawa County, Oklahoma, June.

69. Staminate florets of eastern gamagrass- Tridens Prairie, Lamar County Texas, June.

70. Pedicellate florets of eastern gamagrass- Tridens Prairie, Lamar County Texas, June.

71. Switchgrass- Specimen of a bottomland ecotype along the banks of the Bosque River.in north central Texas (Erath County, September).

72. Switchgrass- An old field reseeded to Cave In Spring accession of switchgrass released out of Missouri by the Soil Conservation Service. Native warm season, perennial tallgrasses like switchgrass, big bluestem, and Indiangrass have been “discovered” by forage agronomists to be dependable, drought-tolerant, and palatable pasture and hay species which require judicious grazing management but not the expensive intensive inputs of fertilizer, irrigation water, etc. Of course much of this “natural advantage” would be lost if these “wild” species were to be domesticated. Newton County, Missouri.

73. Spikelets on panicle of switchgrasss- Erath County, Texas. October.

74. Vine mesquite- Dense stand of vine mesquite showing characteristic sward of this valuable mid-grass. This panicgrass is adapted to a diversity of habitats ranging from understory species in the Texas Cross Timbers through to the rock-strewn shallow ranges of the Edwards Plateau and the floodplain and bosques of semidesert grasslands of the Southwest. Vine mesquite is usually a decreaser and fairly productive of palatable and reasonably nutritious forage when green but when mature it cures with lower nutritive value than associated shortgrasses like buffalograss or blue and black grama. On a lowland site of Windthorst soil, Hunewell Ranch, Tarleton State University, Erath County, Texas, June.

75. Spikelets of vine mesquite- Hunewell Ranch, Erath County, Texas, June.

76. Silver bluestem (Andropogon saccharoides= Bothriochloa sacharoides) at anthesis - This midgrass is typically an increaser on most mixed prairie range sites and an invader on tallgrass prairie range sites, but it is a decreaser on some of the range sites of the arid semidesert grassland or shallower sites in the western Edwards Plateau adjoining the Chihuhuan Desert. Erath County, Texas. July.

77. Silver bluestem at seed ripe stage- Characteristic autumn coloration of this prairie midgrass. Note that most of the shoots are sexually reproductive. Erath County, Texas. July.

78. Broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus)- Although broomsedge is closely related to big bluetem (Hitchcock and Chase [1951] placed them in the same section of Andropogon) the former has nothing of the ecological status or forage value of the latter. In fact, broomsedge is an invader throughout the tallgrass prairie (if not everywhere it grows) and it is one of the least palatable of all