Tallgrass Prairie (Interior)

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The tallgrass prairie includes range vegetation that can be visualized as consisting of two major forms: 1) once-vast grasslands in the continental interior of North America and 2) zones of grasslands and marshes along the shores of North America extending from the Atlantic Coast through the Gulf of Mexico. Climate of the former is continental; that of the latter is maritime. Species composition (including dominants) of plants and animals is similar (sometimes nearly the same) on both of these two basic forms or expressions of tallgrass range. Differences in species in the pre-Columbian ecosystems of these forms was probably not great as there were similar species (= similar ecological niches) or ecological equivalents among range types in them. For example, the dominant climax gallinaceous birds of the interior tallgrass bluestem prairies (eg. Flint Hills and Osage Questas of Kansas and Oklahoma), Gulf of Mexico coastal cordgrass prairies and marshes, and small patches of northern cordgrass prairies along the Atlanic Coast were one subspecies of the grouse known as greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), Attwater prairie chicken (T. cupido attwateri), and heath hen (T. cupido cupido), respectively. Of course the heath hen is extinct, the Attwater in dire trouble, and the greater is declining, but such similarity in taxa of the major grassland bird of each of these recognized generic grasslands illustrated the ecological relatedness of these major forms of tallgrass grasslands and various range cover types therein. For pedagogic purposes and convenience (ease of viewing examples) the tallgrass prairie sub-formation (or sub-biome) of North Amereican grasslands was divided into two separate chapters designated as interior tallgrass prairie and coastal tallgrass prairie. There are marshes (herbaceous plant communities usually with the soil surface covered by standing water most of the year or growing season) in (or affilitated with) both of these major forms of tallgrass prairie. Marshes have often interpreded as different from grasslands, perhaps even as separate biomes. Natural distinction between prairie (dominant plants are species of grasses hence grassland) and marsh (dominant plants include species of grasslike plants such as sedges, bulrushes or tules, rushes, cattails, etc. as well as grasses). Designations and differences are often unclear or even arbitrary as, for example, distinction between wet prairie and marsh. The same dominant and associate species of plants are sometimes common to adjacent grassland and marsh. This condition is more common in coastal prairies and marshes than in interior prairies and associated wetlands. Generally marshes are more common and prominent plant communities in coastal than in interior grassland vegetation. Such was reflected in names of these two major forms of tallgrass prairie. It could be argued that the term prairie could or should encompass both grassland and marsh thereby uniting these two general units of range vegetation. Perhaps prairie could be interpreted so as to include both grassland and marsh. Such a union is not possible given the traditional designation of vegetational or land resource area 2 in Texas as Coastal Prairies and Marshes. The long-standing convention of this "purple-pedigreed' title was retained in the current publication. Rangemen simply have to learn to live with a certain amount of ambiguity. In the Gulf Prairies and Marshes there are range plant and animal communities that are not strictly speaking dominated by tallgrass species. These include such habitats as seashores and salt flats. Such range vegetation or plant and animal communities are, however, part of the Gulf Prairies and Marshes landscape or greater ecosystem (when seen from pserpective of Landscape Ecology or Ecosystem Ecology). In context of a publication devoted to range types these units of range vegetation were distinctive and different enough from described rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994)-- and obviously essential or integral to development and functioning of recognized range types-- that such vegetation was included herein. The ultimate source for native vegetation of the tallgrass prairie (and true prairie) is North American Prairie (Weaver, 1954). Definitive reference for tallgrass prairie from an ecosystem perspective is that of Kucera (in Coupland, 1992, ps. 227--268).

1. The Virgin Prairie- Tallgrass prairie; bluestem pastures. Physiography and vegetation of the Flint Hills. Tallgrass prairie dominated by "The Four Horsemen of the Prairies": big bluestem (Andropogon geraldii= A. furcatus), little bluestem (A. scoparius = Schizachyrium scoparium), Indiangrass (Sorgastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum).Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

* Note: In the North American biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) all cover types within the tallgrass prairie were encompassed by the generic--and overly broad-- designation of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1, except for the Beardgrass Series of Gulf Coastal Grassland. Even the latter was too general for the less diverse Gulf Coastal Tallgrass Prairie. The title of Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series was not repeated again because there are numerous and more specific rangeland cover types within the tallgrass prairie. The better known Kuchler unit, Bluestem Prairie, was shown throughout because it was basis of the Prairie Ecosystem of the long-standing Forest and Range Ecosystem series.

2. Tallgrass prairie transect- "Compressed" along this length (approximately 80 yards) of Flint Hills sod is the complete array of all major tallgrass prairie communities going from wet bottomland to shallow, rocky hilltop. In the immediate left foreground is an eastern gamagrass consociation (a zone of "pure" eastern gamagrass or natural single- species stand) except for two or three patches of canada or nohe third "strip", of two species: 1) big bluestem (far left patch of shorter grass) which is a short-shoot grass that does not elongate its culm until late summer so infloresences have just emerged and 2) a bottomland ecotype of switchgrass (far right midground that has fully emerged its panicle inflorescences that have a reddish cast). Switchgrass is a long-shoot tallgrass that elongates its culm and apical meristem relatively early in the growing season. The fourth zone is Indiangrass which is also a long-shoot tallgrass species of about the same height as the switchgrasss and, being behind it, is not visible from this vantage point. The hillside in the background is a "three-way" dominance mixture of big bluestem, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama farily evenly distributed but with the three respective species becoming progressively less dominant as they populate the hillside until sideoats grama forms a “pure” single-species stand at the summit except for scattered compassplants which are visible against the skyline. The main associate interspersed in the eastern gamagrass and prairie cordgrass is the prominent, tall, yellow composite, wholeleaf rosin-weed (Silphium integrifolium). The mid-height graminoid in the bottom of the draw in far right foreground is another Carex species. This zonal distribution of species in the vegetation is due to soil moisture (and soil depth largely as a determinant of soil water). This is the phenomenon that F.E. Clements (1920, p. 26; Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 203) explained by the term chresard ("amount for use") or soil water available for use by plants. Like most of Clements’ terms this one never caught on (perhaps fortunately so). It seems synonymous with the term and concept of field capacity water for mesophytes, but Clements used chresard as one major factor to explain distribution of plants. The zonation of tallgrass prairie species along this chresard gradient is gradation from most mesic (or maybe hydric) to least mesic or most xeric. It is a graphic reminder of this major fact of life on the range: Available (=effective soil water is the most universally limiting factor in range plant survival, growth, and reproduction.  Soil water available for plant use is the single most important factor in determining species distribution, plant community productivity and, ultimately, yield of range animal products (meaning ranch income). "All Hell needs is water." (Attributed to General Phillip H. Sheridan as his comeback  when he was told that all Texas needed was water. This assessment was a response to Sheridan’s initial conclusion: “If I owned Hell and Texas I would live in Hell and rent out Texas”.  Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

3.Osage landscape- Landscape scale views of the Osage Questas portion of the greater or general Flint Hills Region, all of which is in the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province (Fenneman, 19ps. 605-618). Here in the southernmost extension of the Flint Hills this has traditionally been known as the Prairie Plains (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 616-617) parent material is alternatively limestone or sandstone. The rangeland presented here was primarily in the limestone or "strong grass" country of the Osage where herbage is generally more nutritious and cattle gains greater than on the sandstone-derived soils. Cross Timbers vegetation develops on sandstone-derived soils however. This tallgrass prairie-Cross Timbers range was on the western edge of the Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). The patches of woodland are part of the Eastern Cross Timbers dominated by post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Q. marlandica). Soils are the Stephenville-Darnell series that comprise Sandy Savanna to Shallow Savanna range sites. Tallgrass prairie vegetation is the classic Four Horsemen of the Prairies (big and little bluestems, Indiangrass, and Switchgrass) with wild alfalfa (Psoralea tenuifolia) as dominant forb This classic tallgrass prairie grassland was on Coweta and Bates soil series that made up Shallow Praiirie and Loam Prairie range sites. Prairie Peninsula (Transeau, 1935) was treated immediately below. Osage County, Oklahoma. May; vernal aspect. This natural vegetational mosaic was a combination of FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), 72 (Oak Savanna). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

4. Woods in the prairie- Edges of tallgrass bluestem-dominated prairie and gallary forest in the Flint Hills. The prairie range was comprised primarily by the Four Horseman of the Prairies along with eastern gamagrass. Baldwin ironweed (center of first photograph) and whole-leaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium) (lower left corner of second photograph) were common forbs. Characteristically both forbs were composites. Gallary or fringing forest has generally been applied to tropical vegetation as in regions of rain-forests and savannahs, but ecologists have adopted its use for temperate regions as well. In general a gallary forest is one that follows along streams from stream bank to exterior of the forest where outer edge of this forest contacts adjoining and different (often drastically so) vegetation such as grassland or savanna. Gallary forest includes the riparian zone but extends beyond it to include all woodland or forest that extended consistently from creek, river, etc. to another kind of vegetation. Gallary forests are by definition limited to stream-based, stream-contacting forests that meet another formation or some lower level of major plant community. Gallary forests are not to be confused with streamside forest vegetation bounded by forests (even if this forest plant community differs from the woody riparian vegetation). In the terminology and basic concepts of Landscape Ecology, gallary forests are corridors within a matrix of non-forest vegetation or corridors that connect different landscape matrices and/or patches.Gallary forest were extremely valuable (especially given their limited size as corridors) native forest communities in pre-Columbian grassland and savannas, especially of central North America. Most gallary and riparian forests were treated in this publication inside various chapters of Forests and Woodlands. This example of gallary forest was included here for consistency and comprehensiveness in describing tallgrass prairie range vegetation. Another example of gallary forest-tallgrass prairie edge (forest-grassland ecotone) was presented later in this Tallgrass Prairie (Interior) chapter in context of the North American Prairie Peninsula. Major tree species of the gallery forest introduced here were given in the caption for the next succeeding photograph that revealed the interior of this fringing forest with its general structure. Kings Creek, Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, early August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

5. Gallery forest in Flint Hills tallgrass prairie- This is a veiw standing in virgin tallgrass prairie of the Four Horsemen prairie grasses (big bluestem is dominant and eastern gamagrass is the main associate with Baldwin ironweed the conspicuous forb) looking into a gallery forest dominated by bur and chinquapin oaks (Quercus muhlenbergii) and common or western hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and American or white elm (Ulmus americana) as associates. A gallery forest describes the narrow forest community that grows along the corridor of a water course. It is not only the riparian vegetation that grows directly in the hydric habitat but also forest vegetation growing beyond wet soil. The physiogonomy and mosaic pattern at this close distance resembles that of the Prairie Peninsula of Transeau (1935). Kings Creek, Konza Prairie, Riley County, Kansas. Estival aspect, early August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grasslands Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie) and FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and Oak-Hickory Forest [K-91]). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 731 (Cross Timbers- Oklahoma). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

6. Patch of hardwoods in an Osage prairie- Interior of a gallary forest or, more specifically, an open forest or big tree-savanna by an ephemeral stream or drainage within (completely surrounded by) tallgrass prairie. This bottomland savanna or open forest consisted of black oak (Quercus velutina), bur oak, sycamore green ash, and red mulberry (Morus rubra) with a grassy understorey of tallgrass species including the obvious eastern gamagrass plus big bluestem, switchgrass, Indiangrass, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), Canada wildrye, and purpletop (Tridens flavus) plus tickclover (Desmodium spp.) as the major herbaceous legume. Blackberry (Rubus spp.) was the dominant understorey shrub. It grew in colonies (ie. blackberry patches). Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans) grew up most of the large trees thereby forming an interrupted layer of liana (woody vine). Poison oak (Rhus toxicodendron= Toxicodendron radicans= Rhus radicans) was also present as a liana though at less abundance. In the conceptual framework of Landscape Ecology this open canopy bottomland hardwood forest or hardwood-tallgrass savanna (depending on interpretation) was a patch within a matrix of tallgrass prairie. Structure and species composition of this bottomland savanna or open forest range was remarkably similar (almost identical by standards of vegetation) to the gallary forest. The bottomland savanna was in the southern Osage Questas portion of the Central Lowlands physiographic province whereas the gallary forest treated immediately above was in the Flint Hills portion of the Central Lowlands. Both of these samples of tree-dominated vegetation were quite similar to the ecotone between tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest in the Ozark Plateau to the east and the Cross Timbers to the west and south. In fact, the Western Cross Timbers extend through this same area so that distinction among these tree-dominated plant communities becomes problematic and of little practical importance. Examples of this ecotonal or savanna range vegetation was treated in part at this juncture to show continuity within such natural vegetation and for comprehensive coverage of range plant communities found within the general tallgrass prairie region and the partially conterminous Prairie Peninsula that prior to modification by european man extended eastward and northward from southern and central parts of the tallgrass prairie. An example of actual or per se Prairie Peninsula range vegetation was included later in this chapter. Chapman-Barnard Ranch, Osage County, Oklahoma. Vernal aspect, May. General range vegetation was FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Specific vegetation of this bottomland hardwood-tallgrass savanna was FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and oak-hickory forest [K-91]), closest SRM designation was SRM 731 (Cross Timbers, Oklahoma) in Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

Chapman-Barnard Ranch, Osage County, Oklahoma. Vernal aspect, May. General range vegetation was FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Specific vegetation of this bottomland hardwood-tallgrass savanna was FRES No. 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem), K-73 (Mosaic of Bluestem Prairie [K-66] and oak-hickory forest [K-91]), closest SRM designation was SRM 731 (Cross Timbers, Oklahoma) in Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

7. Famed Flint Hills-Strong grass = good steer country. Four Horsemen grasses with lots of forbs such as lead plant (Amorpha canescens) and wild alfalfa or scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia).Riley County, Kansas. July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), perhaps more specifically, or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie ) generally. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

8. Flint Hills bluestem prairie range- Long-yearling (more like just shy of two-year-olds) steers (some weighing in excess of 700 pounds) grazing tallgrass prairie in the Flint Hills cuesta (so named for a thin, veneerlike mantle of flint and chert overlaying Permian limestone). This is an example of the famed Flint Hills of Kansas (the formation extends some distance into northern Oklahoma) often regarded as one of the greatest natural cattle pastures on Earth and second only to the equally famous and fabulous tallgrass prairie of the Sand Hills of Nebraska. Precisely speaking, much of the general tallgrass prairie pasture region in central and eastern parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska and the western portion of Missouri that are known generically as the Flint Hills are actually several geologically distinctive portions of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Even in Kansas, most of the tallgrass (bluestem) prairie was in geologic units separate and distinct from the Flint Hills as strictly defined geologically. These other physiographic units include the Cherokee Prairie, Osage Questa, Chautauqua Hills, Glaciated Region, and Wellington and McPherson Lowlands. The Osage Questa and Flint Hills units with their limestone excarpments and adjacent proximity closely resemble each other (as can be seen by comparison of slides from both). The Chautauqua Hills sub-province is distinguished geologically by thick sandstone bedrock, but as it wedges up into the Osage Questa as a narrow peninsula and forms part of historical political units and famous grazing grounds like Osage County (Reservation), Oklahoma this distinctive unit is lumped as "Flint-- sometimes, Osage-- Hills". Students are referred throughout this web publication to the timeless classic two-volume set on United States physiography by Fenneman. For geologic units just listed see Fenneman (1938, ps. 605-618). In some years the Kansas Official Transportation Map clearly delinates these physiographic units. Big bluestem was easily the dominant on this steer range with Indiagrass and upland switchgrass coming in as "runners-up". Prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), little bluestem, hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) were well-represtented but relatively rare. The most common forb was Illinhois bundleflower, but it had been grazed so heavily as to be less conspicuous than invader forbs like Baldwin ironweed and western yarrow (Achillea millefolium). A fenceline contrast comparing utilization of palatable forbs under heavier early stocking (Intensive Early Stocking or a grazing practice similar to it) for this same pasture and herd was presented in the following slide. Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. Viewers should bear in mind that big bluestem, the dominant species of the vegetation seen here, is a short shoot or "culmless" grass that does not elongate the culm above the basal leaves until late in the growing season (usually late July or early August in this location). As such, on bluestem prairie the namesake "tallgrass" growth habit does not occur (and therefore the characteristic physiogonomy of tallgrass prairie is not apparent) until late in the growing season. This is often in the autumnal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

9. Visual comparison of ungrazed vegetation of bluestem prairie to that grazed by steers under heavier stocking early in the growing season- The ungrazed sward in the foreground was just outside the fence from the big bluestem-dominated range shown in the preceding slide. The area (both sides of the fence) had been burned off at onset of the current growing season (ie. "this spring"). Foliar cover of Illinois bundleflower was obviously greater where protected from grazing (which in this instance was more intensive utilization in the first part of the growing season). The grass in the immediate foreground was switchgrass, a long shoot species (one that elongates its culm and apical meristem higher earlier in the growing season). Some cattlemen and range-leasing landowners either suspect or have concluded from their personal observations that heavier stocking, and consequent heavier degrees of use, early in the growing (= warm) season reduced populations of the more palatalble forbs, espcially legumes. Limited scientific data have been presented on responses of tallgrass prairie forbs to Intensive-Early Stocking. Owensby et al. (1988) reported that there were no consistent differences among stocking rate treatments on Intensive-Early Stocking of Flint Hills bluestem range, but their data and conclusions were of forb biomass only. Owensby et al. (1988) were not specific as to responses of individual species of forbs. It was not shown whether biomass, cover, density, etc. changed among decreasers like Illinois bundleflower and Maxmillian sunflower versus invaders like western ragweed. Was biomass of certain species the same under Intensive-Early Stocking as under traditional management or did biomass of decreasers decline while biomass of invaders increased (or vice versa)? The author was told by some landowners that management involving heavier stocking early in the growing season (either Intensive-Early Stocking or similar grazing management) had adverse impacts on decreaser forbs, especially legumes (eg. personal communication, R.E. Lenington, DVM, MS, Cedar Vale, Kansas). Flint Hills portion of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Butler County, Kansas. Early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), more specifically. Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

10. Stockers on Osage spring range- Okie steers from Florida on a loamy prairie range site of the bluestem-Indiagrass prairies in the Osage Questas section of the Central Lowlands. Note physiography of the land and height of the tallgrasses after only one month of growth and relatively heavy stocking. Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma, May.

11. Greening up and shedding off- Spring in the Osage brings green-up of the perennial grasses (mostly of Andropogoneae and Paniceae tribes) from their root crowns or proaxes (proaxis is the lowest portion of a grass shoot where the nodes/internodes are stacked close atop one another and where shoot emergence takes place; the point of union of shoot and root portions). Meanwhile the buffalo are shedding their heavy winter pelage or “coats” (buffalo hides were known to buffalo runners, the proper name for buffalo hunters,  as "“robes"and they called the hair “wool”). The two range sites of Loamy Bottomland and Loamy Upland (for the Osage Questas physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands) are visibly divided by the different shades of green in the newly emerged grasses and grasslike plants on this tallgrass prairie. The plants immediately adjacent to the ephemeral stream are spike rush (Eleocharis spp.). Behind this is a zone of switchgrass distinguishable by last year’s dead stalks. Big bluestem dominates the Loamy Upland range site behind. Note the buffalo wallow (and consequent soil erosion) on the ridgeline. Range students should nevr lose sight of the fact that the ecological interaction known as herbivory includes more than actual defoliation. Trambling and even erosion of bare soil are a natural part of herbiivory as are dunging (a form of both defoliation as well as nutrient recycling), propagule dispersal, etc. Tallgras Prairie Preserve (former Chapman-Barnard Ranch), Osage County, Oklahoma. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

12. Upland tallgrass (bluestem) prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and prairie dropseed the associate species on this Osage Questa stocked with steers under Intensive Early Stocking. Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the next two important species (based on both apparent dominance and biomass or herbage production). There were some invaders like Baldwin ironweed, Johnsongrass, curly dock (Rumex crispus), tall fescue, and smooth bromegrass. Silver bluestem and buffalograss were the major native grasses that were in the increaser and invader categories, respectively. Decreaser forbs included Maxmillian sunflower, compass plant, Illinois bundleflower, and leadplant. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), probably more specifically.Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

13. Bluestem prairie grazed by stockers- Tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem with prairie dropseed as the associate being grazed by a mixed (both steers and heifers) herd of stocker cattle under Intensive Early Stocking. Note the degree of use on this bluestem-dropseed tallgrass range at beginning of summer (mid-June). Indiangrass and upland switchgrass were the other two of the Four Horsemen of the Prairies grasses that were abundant on this outstanding natural pasture. Little bluestem frequently ranks a distant fourth among the Four Horsemen on tallgrass prairie pastures in the Osage-Flint Hills sections of the Central Lowland grasslands. Illinois bundleflower and leadplant were present but heavily grazed. The main mid-grass species was sideoats grama; the most common shortgrass species were hairy grama and buffalograss. Mid- and shortgrass species were restricted to localized microsites (perhaps formed partly by spotgrazing). In species composition (density, cover, biomass, etc.) these latter groups constituted nothing even approaching their proportions typical of mixed prairie. A mere listing of species on this form of tallgrass prairie likely would not be different from a species list taken on mixed prairie, except for an occasional species. The difference is in relative proportion of the same, rather than in different, species of grasses. (The swards presented in these slides of tallgrass prairie should be compared to those of mixed prairie in that portion of this publication.) There were traces of three introduced (agronomic) grasses that would automatically be classified as invaders and that purist prairiemen regard as weeds: smooth bromegrass, tall fescue, and Johnsongrass. This range had been fired approximately two months prior to this photograph. Tallgrass prairies used for stocker ranges in this "neck of the woods" are traditionally burnt just before green-up each spring, or at least every few years. Otherwise, in instances where cattlemen lease range from local landowners, stocker operators demand a lower pasture rental fee. Osage Questa sub-unit of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Limestone is the underlying parent material. Greenwood County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), generally, or, more specifically, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Chapman et al., 2001).

14. Steers and heifers grazing tallgrass prairie range in the Osage Questa portion of the once vast bluetem prairie region. Note the thrifty condition and degree of finish on these cattle. They are literally grass-fat which attest to the "strength" (high nutritive value) of this native forage. Degree of use and herbage cover on the land is typical of Intensive Early Stocking which was being used on this range. Close-up of the same range and herd presented in the preceding slide.

15. The Missouri Natural Areas Committee recognized 14 "prairie natural communities". These were based on a hypothetical topographic-geologic transect, but this relief alignment was itself based on a hypothetical chresard profile (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80). This was a generic, theoretical soli catena (catena was defined and illustrated in a succeeding photograph and caption). Soil was not the basis of the types or kinds of prairie other than delineation of alluvium and loess and parent material was not a factor except to show depth to limestone or chert, sandstone, or sand. As such these were not the equivalent of range sites. The Soil Conservation Service did not designate range sites in Missouri. In fact, the SCS in Missouri did not even speak to the matter of range or rangeland The next three slides show examples of some kinds of prairies in Missouri and an adjacent county in Kansas based on the Missouri Natural Areas Committee System.

The 14 Missouri prairie communities were: 1) Dry prairie, 2) Dry-mesic prairie, 3) Mesic prairie, 4) Wet-mesic prairie, 5) Wet prairie, 6) Dry limestone/dolomite prairie, 7) Dry-mesic limestone/dolomite prairie, 8) Dry chert prairie, 9) Dry-mesic chert prairie, 10) Dry sandstone/shale prairie, 11) Dry-mesic sandstone/shale prairie, 12) Dry sand prairie, 13) Dry-mesic sand prairie, and 14) Hardpan prairie.

16. Hardpan Prairie- Little bluestem and upland switchgrass dominate this shallow upland range site in the bluestem prairie region. Prairie dropseed is the main associate but Indiangrass and big bluestem are prominent and contribute substantially to cover and biomass. There is a "healthy"array of forbs, mainly composites. The four visibly prominent purple inflorescences are of showy or elegant gayfeather (Liatris elegans). This delightful prairie has been used as a prairie hay meadow for years. Although tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory prairie savanna are the climatic climax for this region the unique species composition of this grassland is edaphic. A claypan overlaying a seam of coal causes a perched water table of acidic groung water and a soil pH of 4.7. This combination favors prairie dropseed, especially, and little bluestem, secondly, rather than the regional dominants of big bluestem and Indiangrass. The shallow but mesic soil and perched watertable explains  upland switchgrass. This form of tallgrass prairie is in the Ozark Plateau or Ozark Highlands physiographic province.

Stoney Point Prairie, Dade County, Missouri. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Hardpan Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

17. The "Sea of Grass" is far from monotonous- A landscape-scale scene of tallgrass prairie the Cherokee Prairie Region (the Cherokee Lowlands section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) may look like sameness or monotony to the "unth degree" to newcomers, but to trained eyes of prairiemen it is anything uniform. The vast interior of continents was the birthplace of the zonal concept. In this context zonal refers or is applied to "features (eg. soils and vegetation) characteristic of a particular region that is approximately bounded by lines of latitude (ie. a region lying parallel to the equator" (Allaby, 1998) This is the usage that was the basis of newer conceptual views of large spatial scale ecology such as ecoregion (= ecosystem region) as applied in Ecosystem Geography (Bailey, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2002). The earliest application of the zonal perspective to soils has been traced to formal usage in soil classification systems by Russian soil scientists especially Dokuchaev (see for eg. Baldwin et al. in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, p. 980; Fanning and Fanning, 1989, ps. 141-149 passim). Zonal was basis of the first effort at a comprehensive soil system in the United States, the organization of which was into zonal, intrazonal, and azonal soils (Soil Classification in United States Department of Agriculture, 1938, ps. 979-1001). In the Bailey (1995, 1996, 1998) Ecosystem Geography view the intermediate spatial heirarchial unit is the landscape mosaic, or simply landscape, "a geographical group of site-level ecosystems" in which site is the range site level (Bailey, 1996, ps. 22-25, 169). Some authors recognized the catena unit as another spatial unit in the heirarchy intermediate between landscape and range site. Archer and Smeins in Heitschmidt and Stuth (1991, ps. 110-112) applied catena in this way: "A catena is comprised of linked ecosystems. The landscape is a hierarchial level comprised of catenas". Catena in this scheme is obviously the catena used in Soil Science. The Soil Science Society of American (2001) defined catena distinguised it from toposequence.Catena was defined as "a sequence of soils of about the same age, derived from similar parent material, and occurring under similar commatic conditions, but having different characteristics due to variation in relief and in drainage" while a toposequence was "a sequence of related soils that differ, one from the other, primarily because of topography as a soil-formation factor". Across the portion of landscape mosaic of tallgrass prairie presented above there were probably two or three catenas. There were innumerable hypothetical toposequencial transects that could be measured across the grassland ecosystem (or, depending on spatial scale of study, ecosystems), but this was a catena not a toposequence because drainage regimes were considerably different on the various range sites comprising this landscape. Using the "prairie natural communities" catena sequence of the Missouri Natural Areas Committee (Nelson, 1987, ps. 77-80) that were listed above there were three Missouri prairie communities across the tallgrass prairie landscape shown in this photograph: 1) Mesic, 2) Wet-Mesic, and 3) Wet Prairies. Major grasses were the Four Horseman of the Prairies species, prairie dropseed, and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). Composites were by far the major forbs. The most conspicuous at time of photograph was prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), a specimen of which was featured in left foreground. This general geologic region is in the Osage (= Osage Plains) section of the Central Lowland physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 passim), most specifically the Cherokee (or Nevada) Lowlands of the Osage section (Fenneman, 1938, p. 612-613). This region was unglaciated. It is bounded to the southeast by the Ozark Plateaus (= Ozark Uplands) physiographic province and to the west by the Osage Questas section of Central Lowlands. Osage Plains Natural Division (Nelson, 1987, ps. 3 [2-5], 77). Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic Prairie, Wet-Mesic Prairie, and Wet Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

18. Patchwork of tallgrass prairie communities- A vegetational mosaic had developed on this slope of tallgrass prairie in the Cherokee Lowlands physiographic province. Vegetation in foreground (a draw or depression at foot of hill slope) comprised a Wet Prairie community dominated by Carex species with prairie cordgrass and bottomland switchgrass being associates. Background vegetation consisted of two subforms of Wet-Mesic Prairie: a drier subform dominated in roughly equal portions by big bluestem, Indiangrass, and paririe dropseed (left background) and a more mesic subform that was a consociation of prairie cordgrass (right background). This pattern of different tallgrass prairie plant communities at small range site-scale was result of drainage that followed topographic patterns. For those who can truly see (ie. comprehend or understand) and describe vegetation, tallgrass prairie is often extremely varied over relatively small spatial scale. Tallgrass prairie vegetation is far from homogenous. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet Prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1, of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) as was explained and repeated here for reader convenience. Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

19. Consociation amid complexity- A natural single species-stand of prairie cordgrass had developed on a mid-slope above a wet (frequently ponded) depression (see immediately preceding slide). This stand of cordgrass might have been a colony of one genotypic plant rather than a population of several genetic individuals of prairie cordgrass. It was as uniform a crop as any farmer could dream of, but this small "patch" of cordgrass was within (inside of) a larger and diverse range plant community of tallgrass grassland. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet-Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

20. More complexity and species richness in the resources-rich habitat of a tallgrass prairie range- Wet Prairie community (foreground) consisting of several sedge (Carex) and umberella or flat sedge (Cyperus) species was in the foreground of this photograph. The two conspicuous grasslike plant species in the foreground were the umberella sedge, also known as green or marsh flatsedge(Cyperus virens= C. pseudovegetus), smaller plants, and straw-colored flatsedge (C. strigosus), larger and taller plants. The prominent white-flowered forb was common mountain mint (Pycnanthemum virginianum). Mesic-Wet Prairie community was in background. Dominated by prairie cordgrass with big bluestem as associate. The Wet Prairie and Mesic-Wet Prairie communities were distinct and without apparent transition zones between them. Likewise there was no prominent transition between Mesic-Wet Prairie communities and Mesic Prairie communities upslope from them except for increasing predominance of big bluestem and sudden appearance of high cover of Indiangrass. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No.. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Wet prairie and Wet-Mesic Prairie communities. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

21. Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie- This tallgrass prairie in the regional Cherokee Prairie is in the Cherokee Lowlands subunit of the Central Lowlands. This physiographic unit joins the Ozark Plateau immediately to its east. Two of the Missouri kinds or categories of prairie (“prairie natural communities”) are seen here. Overall, big bluestem is the dominant species but in wet depressions of the Wet-Mesic Prairie form species of Carex and Scirpus dominate. On raised, drier microsites of the Mesic Prairie needle-and-thread is common (visible as a purplish color).  At this early summer season the short-shoot big bluestem has not elongated its culm so the tallgrass physiogonomy is not apparent and the grassland instead resembes a mid-grass or mixed praririe. Switchgrass is present only as an associate on this mesic to hydric water regime because by mid-summer to autumn the soil is typically relatively dry reflecting the precipitation pattern (ie. June is the wettest month of the year and the soil is driest by August or September).  Crawford County, Kansas. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Mesic and Wet-Mesic Prairie, SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

22. Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie- This tallgrass prairie is in close proximity to the Mesic and Wet-mesic kinds of prairie in the previous slide and is also part of the former magnificant regional Cherokee Prairie which joins (what is left of it) the magnificant Flint Hills physiographic province and its famed bluestem range. This is also a Four Horsemen of the Prairies tallgrass form and big bluestem is also dominant overall, but prairie dropseed, little bluestem, and needle-and-thread can individually or collectively dominate locally. The foreground is the dry-mesic chert form while the background is the dry chert form. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Late vernal to early estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), Dry-Mesic Chert and Dry Chert Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

23. Species-rich tallgrass prairie range community- This Mesic Prairie community in the Cherokee Prairie Region was dominated by the Four Horseman of the Prairies species (big bluestem and Indiangrass were prominent) plus prairie dropseed. Eastern gamagrass was also locally abundant. Most notable on this grassland range community, however, was the remarkable diversity of forbs in combination with dominance of decreaser tallgrass species. Forb species included black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), the conspicuous yellow-flower composite, prairie gayfeather or prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya), several goldenrod (Solidago) species, Baldwin ironweed (Vernonia baldwinii), roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), compass plant (Silphium laciniatum), and common horsemint or wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa). And all of these listed grass and forb species in the frame of this one photograph! Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

24. Heartland Garden of Eden: quintessential tallgrass prairie range- Here was tallgrass prairie in its ultimate expression as the climatic climax of its zone. Mesic Prairie community with big bluestem (just reaching anthesis stage; many sexually reproductive shoots still in the boot) the dominant and Indiangrass the associate species. This outstanding example was from a gradual mid-slope upland site in close proximity to the species-rich example shown in the immediately preceding photograph. Both of these "photo-plots" were in the Cherokee Prairie Region. This was in the Cherokee Lowlands portion of the Osage Plains section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938, ps. 455, 605-630 [esp. 612-613]). At one time this general area was known for its world-class prairie hay. Several towns and counties in southwest Missouri and southeast kansas are the self-proclaimed "Prairie Hay Caipital of the World". Obviously there is no "one right answer", but the assertion of Minden Mines, Missouri for this coveted title bears special merit. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. July. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

25. The healing sward of tallgrass prairie- This view of the sward — the  aboveground portion of the vegetation of marsh, meadow, or grassland; the herbaceous surface of a grassland or other graminoid-dominated community —of tallgrass prairie shows the characteristic combination of cespitose (clumped or tufted ) grasses or bunchgrasses that reproduce asexually (vegetatively) with tillers (vertical or intravaginated shoots) and the sod-forming grasses that reproduced vegetatively with rhizomes and/or stolons (extravaginated or horizonal shoots belowground and aboveground, respectively).  Some grasses such as big bluestem, which is the dominant species here, and Indiangrass and switchgrass, the main associates in this community, have both tillers and extravaginated shoots like rhizomes (in all three of these species). Other grasses are strictly bunchgrasses with shoots limited to tillers like prairie dropseed the third associate seen in this view. Note to beginning students: shoot is the above ground portion of grass and includes culm (grass stem), leaves, and inflorescence. Tiller is not a synonym for shoot except when the shoot is tiller, a vertical intravaginated shoot. Tiller is not the generic for shoot. It is incorrect to speak or write of “tiller dynamics” when shoots being discussed include  stolons (“runners”) or rhizomes. Then it is shoot dynamics. Freshman Agronomy 105. This virgin sod (sod is the combination of roots and the soil they hold or bind; it is the belowground strata of grassland, marsh, or meadow and usually connotes the first few inches of aboveground vegetation) shows the perfect soil- protecting capacity of shoot and root of grass. It also illustrates the erosion-healing feature of grass. Note the “haired-over” old gully in the background. Senator Ingalls of Kansas had it right: “Grass is the forgiveness of nature…” There are various species of forbs in this Excellent range condition sward but as typical for pristine prairie, the great bulk of biomass (weight of living orgamisms or, more precisely, the live weight of organisms) is contributed by the grasses, and often just two up to maybe five or six species (four in the example seen here). This is mid-estival aspect with the grasses in the boot stage (the phenological stage in which the inflorescence is is still enclosed or enveloped by sheath of uppermost leaf). The short- shoot grasses (those which do not elevate their apical meristem until later in the growing season) like big bluestem are just beginning to elongate their culms. July. Based on herbage yield, palatabability and nutritive value of growing forage, resilence (recovery)  from disturbance, soil formation capability, habitat for number of wildlife species, and contributions to Indian and cowboy culture, this is perhaps the greatest natural pasture in North America if not on Earth. God's own cow country; a rangeman's Garden of Eden. Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (the former Chapman-Barnard Ranch) Osage County, Oklahoma. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Flint Hills Ecoregion, 28a (Woods et al., 2005).

26. The ultimate in heartland grasslands- Tallgrass-true prairie expression of climax grassland in the interior of the humid zone of North America. A local prairie dropseed consociation in a predominately big bluestem-switchgrass mesic tallgrass prairie. Othe major species within this small-scale mosaic of grassland communities (a patchwork of small areas of several contiguous range sites) were porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) and various species of caric sedge (Carex spp.). The interpretation and distinction between true prairie and tallgrass prairie as elaborated by Weaver and Clements (1938, ps. 458-460, 516, 518-521) was described in the chapter, True Prairie, herein. The vegetation of this pristine prairie, one of the jewels of the preserved prairies in Missouri, seemed to be a transition-like expression of grassland vegetation between tallgrass prairie and true prairie range types. However, this "hybrid-like" combination grassland community could not be readily regarded as an ecotone (as ecotonal) or a true transition between the two distinctive types give that they were not conterminous. Rather, there were just scattered consociations of prairie dropseed in a big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie. In the context of Landscape Ecology there were patches of prairie dropseed in a matrix of big bluestem. Populations of upland switchgrass on mima mounds (often populating them almost exclusively) could also be regarded as patches in a big bluestem matrix. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. July. Prebloom stage of prairie dropseed; pre-shoot elongation stage of big bluestem. Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Soil Survey of Newton County, Missouri (Soil Conservation Service, 1992) did not include range sites ("Go figure"). Soils here were Hoberg-Keeno (silt loams), Gerald (silt loam), and Credon (very cherty loam) associations. Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

27. Another grassland community in the ultimate of heartland grassland- A local range plant community of sloughgrass (= prairie cordgrass) and eastern gamagrass on the overall big bluestem-dominated tallgrass prairie introduced in the preceding photograph. This component part of tallgrass prairie vegetation was another form of plant community patch, a much more mesic one, in the matrix of the big bluestem-dominated grassland. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri. July. Grain-ripe stage of eastern gamagrass; pre-boot stage of sloughgrass (= prairie cordgrass). Estival aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). Mesic Prairie community. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) and SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Chapman et al., 2002).

28. Mima mound topography- Mima mounds are frequently characteristic of the virgin sod of tallgrass and true prairies. These "prairie pimples", "Indian mounds", or "meadow biscuits" have long intrigued prairie hay makers as well as ecologists. Laymen and scientists alike have advanced pet explanations for this unique example of micro-topography. This pattern of microrelief (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993, ps. 69-70) is similar to the gilgai phenomenon, but the cause(s) are not as obvious as in the shrink-swell of gilgai clay soils. Knight (1994, ps. 125-130) discussed these "puzzling landscape features" in the Laramie Basin as to their origin and possible effect on vegetation. While this microrelief has received quite a bit of study (Knight provided numerous citations) findings are still inconclusive though mound vs. intermound vegetation is characteristically different.. That is the situation for this excellent condition prairie hay meadow in the Missouri Ozarks. Switchgrass and prairie cordgrass occupy the mounds while big bluestem and prairie dropseed dominate intermond soil. This is similar to the Clementsian concept of postclimax vegetation on deep sand sites (eg. tallgrass vegetation on sandhills in a semiarid mixed prairie region). Grasses of the mounds are clearly the more mesic species. The maroon flowers are those of tall winecup (Callirhoe digitata) which grows only on the mounds. This illustrates the concept of an indicator plant. Mima mounds are a textbook example of microhabitat or –environment within a range site. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri, July.

29. Freshly mowed mima mound- A mima mound in a meadow recently mowed for prairie hay immediately adjacent to the mound in the immediately preceding photograph. This on-the-mound photograph presented a more detailed view at sward level of this microtopography that is a characteristic feature of tallgrass prairie grasslands in the Ozark Plateau and Cherokee Prairie. Diamond Grove Prairie, Newton County, Missouri, July.

30. The glory of tallgrass prairie in the spring- A treasured tallgrass hay meadow dominated by big bluestem with Indiangrass as the associate species as seen in vernal aspect. The conspicuous prairie forb was American cowslip or shooting star (Dodecatheon meadia). "[E]ven Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed as one of thes" (Matthew 6:29; Luke 12:27) -- and we've got a whole meadow full. Ottawa County, Oklahoma. April. Peak bloom in cowslip. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

31. Prairie Cordgrass (Spartina pectinata)-dominated community of tallgrass prairie- Clay bottomland range site. Note wild indigo (Amorpha fruticosa).Anderson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). Bottomland variant of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant. Central Irregular Plains- Osage Cuestas Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2001).

32. Prairie cordgrass or sloughgrass (Spartina pectinata) growing conspicuously in a slough on tallgrass prairie- This species and the local low spot appeared quite pronounced in a dry year. Spartina was derived from the Greek, spartinae, meaning "cords" probably in reference to the tough leaves (Hitchcock and Chase, 1951, p. 508), but many know this particular species more by its major habitat of small damp draws called sloughs. Ecologists like John Weaver (1954, ps. 31-33) more commonly called this most water-requiring of all the major tallgrass species sloughgrass or tall marshgrass. Weaver (1954, p. 33) noted that sloughgrass was "the last stage in the succession from wet land or water to climax prairie" and that it formerly formed essentially single species-stands (consociation in the Clements-Weaver unit of climax vegetation) over hundreds of square miles of bottomland along watercourses such as the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Almost all of this riparian range (and that of the draws on upland prairies like the one shown here) was drained, plowed, and planted to row crops, especially corn. This relict stand is preserved on the Missouri Prairie State Park in Barton County, Missouri (formerly one of the leading prairie hay producing areas). Late estival aspect, September. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie, but as a subunit within tallgrass prairie that did not occur at the mapping scale used by Kucher). The SRM rangeland cover type designated Cordgrass (SRM 726) listed nine variants, but these were all for the Gulf Coast prairies and marshes. S. pectinata was not included in SRM 726. It might seem that the prairie cordgrass community would logically be included as part of the Bluestem Prairie designation (SRM 710), but this species, which forms an obviously distinct climax unit (a consociation), was quite properly not listed thereunder (it is it's own unique rangeland cover type). The SRM (Shiflet, 1994) just misssed it, plain and simple. This is somewhat surprising given the profound impact of Weaver and the University of Nebraska network on generations of rangemen. There should be a Prairie Cordgrass rangeland cover type with a specific and single SRM number and description. Given that the Society (Shiflet, 1994) designated Cordgrass and Sea Oats cover types within the Gulf Coast tallgrass prairie, a Prairie Cordgrass designation and description should be added (if for no other reason than consistenty of presentation). As with the current collection of slides, description of range cover types is an unfinished project. Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

33. Prairie cordgrass community- This was an example of the Spartina pectinata consociation that once made up thousands of acres of virgin wet or mesic prairie at the edge of marshes in the Central Lowlands region. It was probably the most productive of all the actual prairie communities with the possible exception of some parts of the bottomland switchgrass-Canada wildrye-eastern gamagrass community (Weaver, 1954, ps. 35-36). Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). A subunit of K-66 (Bluestem Prairie).SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie), or more generally, SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2002).

34. Inforescence of prairie cordgrass- Even the flower cluster of this productive prairie grass is big, rank, and tough. Weaver (1954, p. 33) explained that both Indians and white pioneers used this species as thatch for lodges, cabins, and even corn cribs. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Estival aspect, mid-July.

35. Prairie cordgrass- Flowering stalks of prairie cordgrass (famed Chimney Rock, before latest loss of spire height, in background). Morrill County, Nebraska. July.

36. Tallgrass prairie in its full glory (peak standing crop; maximum morphological development of tallgrasses at anthesis and fruit set)- This scene shows where "tallgrass" gets it's name. A Loamy Bottomland range site in the Smokey Hills physiographic unit of the Central Lowlands in central Kansas dominated by bottomland switchgrass with big bluestem and Indiangrass as associates. Grasses exceed 8 feet in height on this fertile, high water-holding capacity soil. Drier range sites in this area are mixed prairie so tallgrass prairie is postclimax on the alluvial lowland site. The gallery forest growing along a creek in the background is dominated by eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) with bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) as the major associate. The Smokey Hills is the geologic-physiogrphic unit immediately west of the Flint Hills which in turn is immediately west of the Osage Questas physiographic unit. Tallgrass prairie is the regional or climatic climax of the latter two and the eastern portion of the Smokely Hills. Geologic ages ago this region was covered by a sea. When the Indians had it to themselves it was a sea of grass. Tallgrass prairie such as this is, among the herbaceous (not bamboo) grasslands, to the rangeman and grassland ecologist what the redwood forest is to the forester and forest ecologist.This is the ultimate expression of the grassland formation. Lincoln County, Kansas. Late estival aspect, August. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 (Bluestem Prairie), SRM 710 or 601 both designated as Bluestem Prairie), both the Northern and Southern Great Plains regions in Shiflet (1994) claimed the tallgrass prairies of Kansas (and any fool can see why!). Central Great Plains- Smoky Hills Ecoregion, 27a (Chapman et al., 2001).

37. Autumnal aspect of tallgrass prairie as God and the redman knew it—Upland site dominated by Indiangrass; typical Four Horsemen with willow (Salix sp.), smooth and skunkbush sumac (Rhus glabra, R. trilobata = R. odorata) in draws. Smoky Hills, Maxwell Game Preserve, McPherson County, Kansas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Great Plains- Smoky Hills Ecoregion, 27a (Chapman et al., 2001).

38. Another shot of fall aspect of Four Horsemen dominated-tallgrass prairie to show meaning of “tallgrass” relative to a two-year-old Longhorn bull.Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, Commanche County, Oklahoma.October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) variant or SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) variant. Central Great Plains- Wichita Mountains Ecoregion, 27k (Woods et al., 2005).

39. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by prairie cordgrass (also called sloughgrass) with eastern gamagrass and bottomland switchgrass as two associate species. The conspicuous forbs are foxglove beard-tongue (Penstemon digitalis) which is nearing end of its flowering period and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) which is at late pre-bloom stage. Almost no grasslike plants such as Carex, Juncus, or Scirpus species were common. The heavy clay soil of this bottomland retains so much moisture that prairie crawfish have dug numerous shafts and thrown up short earthen chimneys throughout the ground of what is one of the largest and most pristine examples remaining of this rare type of tallgrass prairie. So far this priceless representative of the once vast North American prairie has been protected by it's use as an unbelievably productive hay meadow. Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Central Lowland physiographic province. This is a part of the general Osage Section of the overall Central Lowland province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601(Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al., 2001).

40. Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata)- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. August.

41. Shoot apex of foxglove beard-tongue (Penstomenon digitalis)- Ottawa County, Oklahoma. May.

42. Wet prairie- First bottoms floodplain tallgrass prairie dominated by eastern gamagrass with bottomland switchgrass the general associate species (locally the dominant) with prairie cordgrass the third major grass species. This was a separate hay meadow adjoining the one shown in the last photograph of wet prairie, but here prairie cordgrass came in third behind the other two bottomland prairie species. This was another example of one of the most beautiful bottomland tallgrass prairies the author was ever blessed to enjoy. Cherokee Prairie sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowland physiographic province. Cherokee County, Kansas. Vernal aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

43. Grand Prairie sampler- Grand Prairie of northcentral Texas in dead of winter. Climax range vegetation presented here was a nearly single-species stand (a consociation if there ever was one) of little bluestem with the major associate species meadow dropseed (Sporobolus asper var. drummondii). Other species, including Indiangrass and Texas wintergrass, were incidential and, basically, non-existent. Range condition class was obviously Excellent. Green trees were mottes of live oaks (Quercus virginiana var. fusiformis= Q. fusiformis) that had their own unique understorey. This layer(s) of the live oak mottes included cool-season grassses, the dominant species of which were Texas wintergrass and Canada wildrye, warm-season grasses (mostly little bluestem, big bluestem, Indiangrass, and vine mesquite), careic sedges, and shrubs the major one of which was spring herald or elbow-bush (Forestiera pubescens). The Texas live oak motte range type was treated separately in this publication under the heading, Eastern or Southern Live Oak, in Miscellaneous Forest Types under Woodland and Forest Types. By convention, convenience, and (probably most importantly) practical necessity the various prairies of northcentral Texas havebeen included (lumped in) with the Cross Timbers (see for eg. Diggs et a. 1999, ps. 42-54). Geology and soils of these two natural resource and vegetational units are drastically different with Cross Timbers developing sandy, generally deep soils whereas Grand Prairie soils are underlaid with limestone (often in the form of caliche) and are typically shallower than their sandy land savannah counterparts. In Texas' Cross Timbers and Prairies vegetational (land resource) area, live oak almost always grows only on calcareous (limey) soils so that these evergreen hardwoods are reliable plant indictors of Grand Prairie soils and vegetation. Across the United States there have been several so-called Grand Prairies including another famous one in Illinois and a small one in Missouri. In Texas in a literal sense (strictly speaking and again by convention) the Grand Prairie as a natural unit of land and vegetation includes the Forth Worth Prairie and Lampasas Cut Plain (Diggs et al., 1999, 48-54). Natural range vegetation of the Grand Prairie, especially of the Forth Worth Prairie portion, is similar to that of the Texas Blackland (=Waxy or Waxyland) Prairie being the "standard" North American tallgrass bluestem prairie but with Texas wintergrass as a cool-season dominant and with considerably more diversity of forbs and woody plants. Kuchler (1964, 1966) maped both the Forth Worth and Blackland Prairies as the same unit, Blackland Prairie (Andropogon-Stipa). The definitive description of the Fort Worth Prairie portion of the Grand Prairie vegetational unit remains the classic monograph of Dykserthuis (1946). Erath County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, specifically Bluestem "Tall-Grass Series, 142.11 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Cross Timbers- Limestone Cut Plain Ecoregion, 29e (Griffith et al., 2004).

44. Upland tallgrass prairie- Big bluestem was the dominant and eastern gamagrass was the associate species on this form of bluestem praire. Forbs included leadplant, Illinois bundleflower, purple milkweed (Asclepias purpurea), and the naturalized yellow sweet clover (Melilois officinalis). Even on this virgin tallgrass prairie in "mint condition" there were occasional plants of smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea). Osage Questa (physiographic sub-province of the Osage Section of the Central Lowlands physiographic province) form of tallgrass prairie. Woodson County, Kansas. Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie), more generally, or SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie).

45. Tallgrass form in Blackland Prairie of Texas-Less than 1/10 of 1% of original "Waxy Land" Prairie remains. Here in Tridens Prairie (Lamar County, Texas) is a rare upland site dominated by eastern gammagrass or, to locals, corngrass (Tripsacum dactyloides) and switchgrass. Also present arebluestems, tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper), longspike tridens (Tridensstrictus), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum) as well as forbs like rattlesnake master or snake-root eryngo (Eryngium yuccifolium) and giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima ). Estival aspect, June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-68 (Blackland Prairie). SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

46. Texas Blackland Prairie- The blackland or waxy land prairie has all but vanished. Less than 0.1 % of the original blackland prairie remains. The rest fell before the plow and other forms of intensive agriculture and commerce. This is a rare remnant of what was once a distinct form of tallgrass prairie. The grassland community seen here is on a hog wallow (gilgai) microrelief prairie formed by a Vertisol of montmorillonite clay that has high water-holding capacity. This edaphic habitat is dominated by eastern gamagrass, switchgrass and tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper). The conspicuous forb is yuccaleaf ernygo (Eryngium yuccifolium) but there are many other species of forbs, especially composites like giant coneflower (Rudbekia maxima), ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis), and three goldenrod (Solidago) species. Numerous genera and families of forbs are represented as for example the bright pink corolla in the left foreground which is wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis). The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosytem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass), Blackland range site. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

47. Graylands form of Blackland Prairie- Adjacent to the hog wallow prairie dominated by mesic tallgrass species is a droughty, acidic soil site with the unique Sylvanus or silver dropseed (Sporobolus sylveanus)-dominated prairie with Mead sedge (Carex meadii) as a local co-dominant and switchgrass, Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum), and rosette panicgrasses (Panicum oligosanthes and/or P. scribnerianum) are associates. Several species of less mesic forbs also occur on graylands but they contribute relatively little biomass to the total range plant community. The Nature Conservancy Tridens Prairie, Lamar County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

48. Texas blackland or waxyland prairie- This is another Four Horsemen tallgrass prairie but with several dropseeds including prairie dropseed and tall dropseed, longspike tridens (Tridens strictus), Florida paspalum, and cool-season grasses including Canada wildrye and Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus). The dominant mid-grass is sideoats grama. Texas wintergrass (Stipa leucotricha) is present but only as a spring associate or local dominant and not as a dominant of the peak standing crop community. This tallgrass community is typical of Texas prairies in that the nearly universal dominants are little bluestem and Indiangrass or little bluestem as the dominant and Indiangrass as the major associate with the other grasses varying by microsite. There are numerous microsites on this prairie as it includes the complete sequence of blackland soils with the hog wallow (= gilgai) and mima mound relief. The latter form of microtopography occurs on clay loam or “greyland” soils. In typical prairie “fashion”  there are numerous species of forbs (mostly composites). While these forbs are conspicuous they comprise relatively little of the biomass or plant cover. Dominant forbs include the yellow-flowered rough-stem or rough-leaf rosin weed (Silphium radula) and compassplant (S. laciniatum) and the annual American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana). The prairie seen here is the least mesic upland form of blackland (in contrast to the clay soil upland prairie represented by the preceding slide of Tridens Prairie). One of the soil series present in isolated patches is the classic Houston black clay. Many of the depressions, especially those of Houston black clay, host the the unusual prairie cray(w)fish (Procambarus gracilis) which sinks its shafts down to the wet soil layers, or perhaps to the surface aquifer beneath the virgin sod. This indicates that these prairie soils are more or less permanently wet. Though this is an upland prairie, it is a wet prairie with a hydric water regime (not a marsh of inundated soil with standing surface water but the next thing to it). Trees along the edge of the photograph are part of a gallary forest along a prairie creek. Tree species at edge of prairie include cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia), hedge apple or bois-d-arc (Maclura pomifera), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July.FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof (the Blackland Prairie is more an extension of the tallgrass [Andropogon-Sorgastrum] prairie than the true [Sporobolus-Stipa] prairie as was incorrectly stated under 717 but it does contain dominant species of both). Clay Loam and trace of Loamy Prairie range sites. Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairies Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al.l, 2004).

49. Detail of the tallgrass sward of Texas Blackland Prairie- This is a little bluestem-Indiangrass dominated tallgrass stand (the tallest and grey-green grass shoots are of Indiangrass) but associated species do contribute appreciable biomass and cover. Gramineae associates include Canada or nodding wildrye, Virginia wildrye, prairie dropseed, tall or meadow dropseed, and longspike tridens. Forb associates include rough-stem rosinweed, compassplant, American basketflower, and Maxmillian sunflower (composites are far more important than all other forb families combined). It should be specified that the dominant cool-season grasses are the wildryes and not Texas wintergrass. The SRM cover type title and description of Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass would be Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Wildrye for this variant, and this is a tallgrass prairie not a true prairie form.  The Nature Conservancy Clymer Prairie, Hunt County, Texas. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-68 (Blackland Prairie), SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass) or variant thereof, Clay Loam range site.Texas Blackland Prairies- Northern Blackland Prairie Ecoregion, 32a (Griffith et al., 2004).

50. American basketflower or American knapweed (Centaurea americana)- The niche of this native annual is interesting given that annuals, including this species, usually are more common on disturbed areas. Here on virgin sod of a tallgrass prairie dominated almost exclusively by perennial grasses and forbs this annual composite is obviously plentiful and reproductively successful. This illustrates the great biodiversity possible on natural grassland communities. Clymer Prairie, Hunt Texas, July.

51. Tallgrass prairie of Lampasas Cut Plain- Dominance of this plant community by tallgrass species of little bluestem and meadow dropseed qualified this range plant community as an example of interior tallgrass prairie, but strictly speaking this vegetation is part of the Edwards Plateau due to its physiographic affinity with the Great Plains. It was interpreted as part of the Great Plains physiographic province by Fenneman (1931, pgs. 54-59, esp. 55; 1938, ps. 102, 106). Thus this range vegetation was discussed in more detail in the Grassland chapter, entitled Edwards Plateau. This example of prairie was included at this point in interior tallgrass parairie to provide consistency as to physiography, avoid confusion, and provide as much comprehensive coverage within each chapter as was possible. Lampasas County, Texas. October. Autumnal aspect. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K- Juniper-Oak Savanna. Texas. Variant of SRM 717 (Little Bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas Wintergrass). Cross Timbers- Limestone Cut Plain Ecoregion 29e (Griffith et al., 2004).

Prairie Peninsula: Prairie-Deciduous Forest Ecotone (hardwoods-tallgrass savanna)

One of the largest ecotones in North America is the vast transition between eastern deciduous forest formation and the immense humid-to-subhumid tallgrass and true prairies portion of the central grasslands. This ecotone manifests itself primarily as a savanna of various oak and hickory species with an herbaceous understorey of tallgrass and midgrass species plus attendant forb and shrub species. In one of the classic ecological monographs of North American vegetation Transeau (1935) mapped this transition of climax plant communities and labeled the huge savanna the Prairie Peninsula. Subsequent to establishment of the Prairie Peninsula as a more northern manifestation of the tension zone between eastern deciduous forest and central prairie (Transeau, 1935) later workers interpreted similar climax vegetation to the south of the mapped Prairie Peninsula as islands or outliers the savanna, the ecotone, first described by Transeau (1935). The Cross Timbers and much of the Ozark Plateau are now regarded by range and vegetation scientists as part of the greater Prairie Peninsula. These latter vegetational-physiogrphic-geologic areas or units were treated in a separate chapter herein as Tallgrass Savanna under the Grasslands section. This savanna range vegetation was interpreted by the current author as a form of the general central grassland formation more than deciduous forest formation (a rangeman's bias perhaps) yet treated as a distinct major unit of North American vegetation. A brief sample of the Prairie Peninsula within the original region mapped and described by Transean(1935) was included in the present Tallgrass Prairie chapter to provide continuity in treatment and connections among coverage of the various range cover types.

52. A taste of the Prairie Peninsula- Border of natural vegetation at one of infinite (at one time) "confluences", meetings, or minglings of tallgrass prairie and eastern deciduous forest communities. Important prairie species of the grassland included big bluestem, eastern gamagrass, prairie cordgrass, prairie dropseed, switchgrass, Indiangrass, and giant goldenrod . Woody vegetation was a gallary forest along Cub Creek comprised of numerous tree species including green ash, red mulberry, black walnut (Juglans nigra), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), and western hackberry. Homestead National Monument, Gage County, Nebraska. July, estival aspect. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Central Great Plains- Rainwater Basin Plains Ecoregion, 27f (Chapman et al., 2001).

53. Landscape-scale view of the western Prairie Peninsula- Near the western extremity of the Ozark Plateau and beginning of eastern Cherokee Prairie (Central Lowlands physiographic province) the famed Prairie Peninsula of tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest have been in slow but perpetual battle for supremacy of the land. Overall dominant plant across this indescribably beautiful "prairiescape" was big bluestem. Local dominant was upland switchgrass, accompanied by Indiangrass, prairie cordgrass, little bluestem, and several dropseed species. Dominant forb was the large composite, compassplant (Silphium lacinatum). Oak-hickory forests typical of those in the adjoining Ozark Highlands (Springfield Plateau) had developed on some north slopes and moister valleys of this landscape. Prairie State Park, Barton County, Missouri. Late July, peak standing crop overall with switchgrass in full-bloom, big bluestem just beginning to elongate shoots, and compassplant at peak bloom. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 802 (Missouri Prairie), essentially by definition, but SRM 601 (Bluestem Prairie) is likely a better fit. Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Central Irregular Plains- Cherokee Plains Ecoregion, 40d (Chapman et al, 2002).

54. Prairie Peninsula at union of Ozark Plateau and Cherokee Prairie- Well-maintained prairie hay meadow situated within oak-hickory forest on the ancient hills of the Springfield Plateau portion of the Ozark Mountains. Big bluestem, Indiangrass, upland switchgrass, prairie dropseed, purpletop, Canada wildrye, Virginia wildrye, and common or whole-leaf rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium) were major species in roughly that order. One common grasslike plant was tall nut-sedge (Scleria oligantha). The tracts of oak-hickory forest that were "inter-woven" with tallgrass prairie were dominated--alternatively-- by post oak, blackjack oak, black oak (Quercus velutina), chinquapin oak, and/or black hickory (Carya texana), in locally varying combinations and with such associates as western hackberry, green elm, black walnut, American elm, honey locust, common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Redbud (Cercis canadensis) and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) dominated an upper shrub layer wereas blackberry made up a lower shrub layer. Grass species of the adjoining tallgrass prairie formed an herbaceous understorey. The wildryes and purpletop were typical major grasses. In more open oak-hickory stands big bluestem was dominant as reflected by the local common name of "timbergrass". Ottawa County, Oklahoma. July, nearing peak standing crop. FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-66 (Bluestem Prairie). K-73 (Mosaic of K-66 [Bluestem Prairie] and K-91 [Oak-Hickory Forest]. SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie). Plains Grassland 142.1, Bluestem "Tall-Grass" Series, 142.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Ozark Highlands- Springfield Plateau Ecoregion, 39a (Woods et al. (2005).

55. Sward of the western Prairie Peninsula- Another (and more detailed) view of the species-rich prairie hay meadow introduced above that was at western edge of the Springfield Plateau and beginning of Cherokee Prairie. In this view ashy sunflower (Helianthus mollis) was conspicuous along with lots of prairie blazing star or prairie gayfeather (Liatris pycnostachya).The Four Horsemen of the Prairies were in firm command, but late season haying (late July-early August) had reduced cover of these climax dominants. Increasers like purpletop had