Tallgrass Prairie (Coastal Prairies & Marshes)

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The tallgrass prairie includes range vegetation that can be visualized as consisting of two major forms: 1) once-vast grasslands in the continental interior of North America and 2) zones of grasslands and marshes along the shores of North America extending from the Atlantic Coast through the Gulf of Mexico. Climate of the former is continental; that of the latter is maritime. Species composition (including dominants) of plants and animals is similar (sometimes nearly the same) on both of these two basic forms or expressions of tallgrass range. Differences in species in the pre-Columbian ecosystems of these forms was probably not great as there were similar species (= similar ecological niches) or ecological equivalents among range types in them. For example, the dominant climax gallinaceous birds of the interior tallgrass bluestem prairies (eg. Flint Hills and Osage Questas of Kansas and Oklahoma), Gulf of Mexico coastal cordgrass prairies and marshes, and small patches of northern cordgrass prairies along the Atlanic Coast were one subspecies of the grouse known as greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus), Attwater prairie chicken (T. cupido attwateri), and heath hen (T. cupido cupido), respectively. Of course the heath hen is extinct, the Attwater in dire trouble, and the greater is declining, but such similarity in taxa of the major grassland bird of each of these recognized generic grasslands illustrated the ecological relatedness of these major forms of tallgrass grasslands and various range cover types therein. For pedagogic purposes and convenience (ease of viewing examples) the tallgrass prairie sub-formation (or sub-biome) of North Amereican grasslands was divided into two separate chapters designated as interior tallgrass prairie and coastal tallgrass prairie. There are marshes (herbaceous plant communities usually with the soil surface covered by standing water most of the year or growing season) in (or affilitated with) both of these major forms of tallgrass prairie. Marshes have often interpreded as different from grasslands, perhaps even as separate biomes. Natural distinction between prairie (dominant plants are species of grasses hence grassland) and marsh (dominant plants include species of grasslike plants such as sedges, bulrushes or tules, rushes, cattails, etc. as well as grasses). Designations and differences are often unclear or even arbitrary as, for example, distinction between wet prairie and marsh. The same dominant and associate species of plants are sometimes common to adjacent grassland and marsh. This condition is more common in coastal prairies and marshes than in interior prairies and associated wetlands. Generally marshes are more common and prominent plant communities in coastal than in interior grassland vegetation. Such was reflected in names of these two major forms of tallgrass prairie. It could be argued that the term prairie could or should encompass both grassland and marsh thereby uniting these two general units of range vegetation. Perhaps prairie could be interpreted so as to include both grassland and marsh. Such a union is not possible given the traditional designation of vegetational or land resource area 2 in Texas as Coastal Prairies and Marshes. The long-standing convention of this "purple-pedigreed" title was retained in the current publication. Rangemen simply have to learn to live with a certain amount of ambiguity. In the Gulf Prairies and Marshes there are range plant and animal communities that are not strictly speaking dominated by tallgrass species. These include such habitats as seashores and salt flats. Such range vegetation or plant and animal communities are, however, part of the Gulf Prairies and Marshes landscape or greater ecosystem (when seen from pserpective of Landscape Ecology or Ecosystem Ecology). In context of a publication devoted to range types these units of range vegetation were distinctive and different enough from described rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994)-- and obviously essential or integral to development and functioning of recognized range types-- that such vegetation was included herein. Probably the best authority and most nearly completely coverage of coastal tallgrass prairie is that of Smeins et al.(in Coupland, 1992, ps. 269-290).

1. Gulf or Coastal Prairies and Marshes vegetational area of Texas- a landscape mosaic of many ecosystems from estuaries to tallgrass prairie to patches or corridors of the "running" form of live oak (Quercus virginiana) and red bay (Persea borbonia). San Antonio Bay on Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, winter home of the whooping crane (Crus americana).Coming inland from the bay the zones of various communities (many of them consociations or populations) are: 1. smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternifolia), salt marsh, 2. a marsh commuity of saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus californicus, S. americanus), black needle rush or slender spike rush (Eleocharis acicularis), and whitetop sedge (Dichromena colorata), salt marsh, 3. Gulf and marshhay cordgrass (Spartina spartinae, S. patens), tidal flat, and 4. live oak-red bay shrub community in the foreground. Refugio County, Texas. Late heimal- prevernal aspect, February. SRM 726 (Cordgrass) of several forms and variants. Beardgrass Series (Gulf Coastal Grassland) of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

2.. Texas Coastal Praries and Marshes- Zones of vegetation from San Antonio Bay. Coming from the bay inland these are: the short form of smooth cordgrass (tan-colored zone on far side of the bay) ,  the green zone is saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus maritimus) and black needlerush (Juncus roemerianus),  the zone of low-stature vegetation inland from the green zone is the grass community dominated by seashore saltgrass, shoregrass, sea blite, and Virginia glasswort or saltwort,  the zone of tufted plants is a tidal flat dominated by the cespitose marshhay cordgrass with sea ox-eye plus some scattered Gulf cordgrass, and  the inland-most or woody vegetation (foreground) is live oak-red bay (Persea borbonia)-yaupon forest.  The two zones of 1) smooth coregrass and 2) saltmarsh bulrush-black needlerush comprise saltmarsh whereas the 3) salt-shoregrass community and the 4) marshhay cordgrass make up the tidal flat.  Vegetation of these herbaceous zones were shown in preceding slides. Calhoun County, Texas.  Hibernal aspect, February. No single FRES or K-unit could describe this. Texas Coastal Prairies and Marshes Vegetation (= Land Resource) Area. Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

3. Texas Coastal Bend Prairie- Arch-typical Texas coastal prairie that is basically a consocition of seacoast little bluestem (Andropogon littoralis= Schizachyrium scoparium var. littoralis) with silver bluestem as the major associate and smaller proportions of such tallgrass species as crinkleawn (Trachypogon secundus), Paspalum species, Gulf cordgrass, Indiangrass, and Pan American balsamscale (Elyonurus tripsacoides). Almost no forbs; no woody plants. Aransas National Wildlife Reguge, Refugio County, Texas. October. FRES No.39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie), SRM 711 (Bluestem-Gulf Cordgrass Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

4. Upland (versus bottomland or beach) coastal prairie- This scene is a transect shot extending from a few feet above sea level down literally into the Gulf waters of San Antonio Bay. Several range sites occur along the landscape seen here which extends from coastal prairie to the salt water marsh of smooth cordgrass (spartina alterniflora) out in the bay. Species visible in the prairie of the foreground include seacoast bluestem (the most common species), big bluestem, silver bluestem, Indiangrass, bottomland switchgrass (ie. a Four Horsemen prairie the same as the Flint Hills of Kansas, Osage Hills of Oklahoma, Sand Hills of Nebraska, or Blackland Prairie of Texas), Pan American balsamscale, common reed (Phragimites communis), bushy bluestem (Andropogon glomeratus) withTurk's cap and Gulf Coast coneflower as major forbs.

5. Pan American balsamscale- This member of the Andropogoneae tribe provides forage of only fair to, rarely, good nutritive value but it is a common associate on coastal prairies. It is a distinctive grass but a species lesser known to most rangemen. It was included here to illustrate the vast diversity of species on North American grasslands.

6. Inflorescence of Pan American balsamscale.

7. Composite shot of both the coastal prairie and Gulf salt marsh- The foreground is a tallgrass prairie with bottomland switchgrass conspicuous at far right along with bushy bluestem, seacoast bluestem, the conspicuous Gulf Coast Mexican hat, and common reed (visible as the tallest three or four rank shoots at front edge of water). The background beginning at back edge of the stream is a smooth cordgrass salt marsh. Two distinct range cover types (and two distinct Kuchler units and FRES Ecosystems) are clearly separated by the water line: brackish or salt water from San Antonio Bay reaches up to the back side of the stream (which is mostly fresh water) and supports smooth cordgrass which is Gulf Coast salt marsh: FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands), K- 70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie), SRM  806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh). In front of the fresh water stream which serves as a barrier against intrusion of Gulf salt water from the bay is coastal tallgrass prairie: FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), either K- 66 (Bluestem Prairie) or K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] prairie and thus either SRM 710 (Bluestem Prairie) or 711 (Bluestem-Gulf Cordgrass Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40) was as close as there was in that system. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecosystem, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004). There is very little of either marshhay or Gulf cordgrass so it is basically tallgrass prairie as explained in the previous landscape scene. Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Refugio County, Texas. October.

8. Gulf Coast saltwater cordgrass marsh- This unique grassland community is a consociation of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) that extends the entire length of the Gulf Coast clear up along the Atlantic Seaboard, often in patches or of intermittent distribution, to the salt marshes of New England extending to Nova Scotia. These regularly flooded tidal or Gulf marshes  "... are almost exclusively Spartina alterniflora marshes..." and are "... almost a natural monoculture of  Spartina alterniflora..." (Teal, 1986, p.1). It forms the Great Barnstable Marsh at Cape Cod, Massachusetts and the smooth cordgrass marshes at Cape Hatteras National Seashore, South Carolina. Furthermore the S. alterniflora marshes have a worldwide distribution occurring in Argentina and western Europe, including the British Isles (Teal, 1986, p.3). It has been widely studied and shown that there are two varieties of S. alterniflora: tall form and a short form of smooth cordgrass with the tall being on tidal creeks with fresh water and the short variety on sites or local areas subject to flooding with salt water. Some workers reported an intermediate form between fresh (or slightly brackish) and salt water (Haines and Dunn in Chabot and Mooney, 1985, ps. 323-341).   This plant community is, of course, a major part of the estuaries all along the coast. In fact, smooth cordgrass is often the major producer in these estuaries (Odum, 1971, p. 357). It was while working with these tidal marshes in Georgia that Eugene Odum discovered that the salt marsh-estuary ecosystem (the tidal or coastal wetlands= coastal tidelands) is probably the most productive ecosystem on Earth. Work like this and that by Teal (and the very popular book by Teal and Teal [1969]) as well as publicity by prominent conservationists like Rachel Carson spawned a nationwide effort to save what remained of United States’ ocean marshes and estuaries. The story of this largely successful, remarkable conservation program was published by (Siry, 1984).  Of more direct historical interest to range students is the fact that the smooth cordgrass salt marshes formed part of the vast coastal and bay range that was the cradle of the range cattle industry in Texas and Louisiana. The famous Longhorns in this region were appropriately dubbed by Texas cowmen as "coasters" and "sea lions". FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem), but Kuchler did not map the smooth cordgrass tidal flats (tidal, coastal, or sea marshes). Specifically the smooth cordgrass "monoculture" is one component or varient of SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh). Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

9. Inside a cordgrass (gulf and marshhay) tidal flat- A woody component of the composite Baccharis halimifolia and the borage, seaside heliotrope (Heliotropium curassavicum ), surrounded by red bay-live oak shrub (or actually trees) to constitute a "forest" of sorts. Aransas Refuge, Refugio County, Texas. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) or, partially , SRM 719 (Mesquite-Live Oak- Seacoast Bluestem). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40) was closest in that classification system. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

10. Aransas Tidal flat range community- Marshhay cordgrass (green tufts on right margin), seashore or coastal saltgrass (adjacent and immediately left of cordgrass), shoregrass (Monanthochloe littoalis) left and adjacent to saltgrass, sea ox-eye (Borrichia frutescens) is the pea-green forb, common brown forb producing most cover is perennial sea blite (Suaeda conferta), and scattered yellow forbs are Virginia glasswort or saltwort (Salicornia virginica).

11. Species of Aransas tidal flats- Annual saltwort (S. bigelovii) in shoregrass.

12.  Sward of seashore saltgrass and shoregrass.

13. Seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum)- This species sends stolons up to edge of (frequently extending into) Gulf water. It is one of the most salt water-tolerant grasses in the world.

14. Archtypical scene of coastal prairie- Swale-and-ridge gulf grassland comprised of the Four Horsemen tallgrasses and surrounded by live oak mottes plus laurel oak (Quercus hemisphaerica), red bay, and yaupon (Ilex vomitoria). Associate grassland species include marshhay cordgrass and bushy bluestem (Andropogon glomeratus). Much of the little buestem is the sea coast form treated by some as a variety of little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium var. littoralis) but as a distinct species (Andropogon littoralis) by Hitchcock and Chase (1950).Aransas National Refuge, Refugio County Texas. Prevernal aspect, February. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) and FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) surrounded by K-81 (Live Oak-Sea Oats). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and SRM 719 (Mesquite-Live Oak-Seacoast Bluestem). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Mid-Coast Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34h (Griffith et al., 2004).

15. Closer view of the fauna of the Scirpus colony- A female American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is the representative of the largest reptile of the Atlantic coastal prairies and marshes. This 'gator was reportedly 13 feet long. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem), K- 42 (Tule Marshes), SRM 807 (Gulf Coast Fresh Marsh).

16. A salty situation- Gulf Coast salt marsh that was a consociation of seashore saltgrass (Distichlis spicata= D. spicata var. spicata). This saltgrass zone of coastal salt marsh was near mouth of Sabine River as it slowly drains into the Gulf of Mexico. Range vegetation in background varied considerably and included marsh communities dominated alternatively by tule or bulrush (Scirpus spp.), common cattail (Typha latifolia), common reed (Phragmites communis= P. australis) and even sedges (Carex spp.) as well as prairie plant communities dominated by various cordgrasses (Spartina spp.), bluestems (Andropogon spp.), and panicgrass (Panicum sp.). These other range cover types or subtypes were covered below. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. (Perhaps it was appropriate that there should be conflicting or overlapping claims on Gulf rangeland cover types consistent with the precident from history when France and Spain each claimed the land of Louisiana.) Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, Saltgrass Series 243.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

17. Salty sward- Close-in view of sward of the vast stand of seashore saltgrass presented in the preceding slide and in part of the salt marsh vegetation shown in the next two slides. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.

18. Two narrow zones- Zonal range vegetation at fine scale had developed on this salt to brackish marsh on the Gulf Coast of Texas. On the right (to right of ponded water) of both of these "photo-plots" a seashore saltgrass consociation made up a sharply distinct vegetational zone of coastal marsh whereas a diverse mixture of bulrush, common cattail, and cordgrass formed another zonal range community in the left of the "plots" (beginning directly in and behind ponded water). These various range plant communities, as denoted by dominant species, were treated below. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. (Perhaps it was appropriate that there should be conflicting or overlapping claims on Gulf rangeland cover types consistent with the precident from history when France and Spain each claimed the land of Louisiana.) Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, Saltgrass Series 243.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). Also of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

Note on diversity and species richness of range vegetation presented from ranges in Jefferson County, Texas: Diggs et al. (2006) listed and mapped for the relatively small Jefferson County, Texas (in which many of the ranges shown here were found) the following number of species of grasslike plants: 32 Carex, 19 Cyperus, 13 Eleocharis, 8 beak-rush or beak sedge (Rhynchospora), six Scirpus, five fimbry (Fimbristylis), and four Schoenoplectus. Undoubtedly, many and probably most of these species grew on the Gulf Coast marsh and prairie ranges presented herein.

19. Botanic "polyplot" on the Gulf Coast- This ungrazed Gulf Coast marsh vegetation was a wealth of botanical diversity as well as herbage yield. Salinity of this coastal marsh varied from salt to brackish depending on recent precipitation, height of tide, storm surge, evaporation, and other factors. Perhaps that is why this range supported so many plant species including: bulrush or tule, common cattail, sedges, flatsedges (Cyperus spp.), common reed, Gulf cordgrass, less cover and yield of marshhay cordgrass, seacoast bluestem, big bluestem, switchgrass, bushy beardgrass, and various paspalums. (Also, of course, many could be more easily and positively identified in the ungrazed state.) Marsh vegetation in foreground was ungrazed whereas that of background was moderately, heavily or closely grazed. The latter degrees of use were shown immediately below. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. (Perhaps it was appropriate that there should be conflicting or overlapping claims on Gulf rangeland cover types consistent with the precident from history when France and Spain each claimed the land of Louisiana.) Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, Saltgrass Series 243.11 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). Also of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

In the following short section a short series of photographs presented exampes of moderate, heavy, and close grazing by beef cattle on a Gulf Coast marsh (of varying seasonal levels of salinity). Degree of use on these ranges was shown following display in immediately preceding photographs of cattle-excluded, ungrazed range immediately adjacent to the grazed units.

20. Moderate grazing on cordgrass (sacahuista) form of brackish to salt coastal marsh- Example of moderate degree of defoliation by livestock on a brackish Gulf Coast marsh dominated by Gulf cordgrass (= sacahuista) with bulrush species, seacoast bluestem, common cattail, and other species less abundant. Description of this range vegetation was presented in the caption under the two photographs of ungrazed Gulf Coast marsh vegetation (immediately above) that were conterminous to this moderately grazed range. The marsh community shown here was, however, primarily Gulf cordgrass (= sacahuista) with lesser amounts of bulrush which quite obviously seemed to be much more palatable than the generally low-palatability sacahuista and even the relatively high-palatability seacoast bluestem. Further pictorial evidence of this selective grazing by cattle was shown also in succeeding "photo-plots". Proper degree of use for this range type apparently has not been studied as much--let alone scientifically determined-- as has that for interior tallgrass paririe. Species composition of this grazed vegetation did not vary dramatically from that of adjacent marsh from which livestock had been excluded (when allowance was made for differences between bulrush-dominated and sacahuista- dominated range). It was underscored, however, that the duration (in years, decades) of moderate grazing and other aspects of past grazing use were not known. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. Range vegetation as to the biotic community classification of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

21 Heavy grazing on cordgrass (sacahuista) form of brackish to salt coastal marsh- A Gulf Coast brackish marsh range dominated by Gulf cordgrass that was being managed under heavy grazing by beef cattle.Bulrush, seacoast bluestem, Paspalum species, etc. were present but less abundant on this coastal marsh range. Description of this range vegetation was presented in the caption under the two photographs of ungrazed Gulf Coast marsh vegetation that were conterminous to this heavily grazed range. Species composition probably did not differ from that of the moderately grazed range shown immediately above. Range vegetation on both the moderately grazed and this heavily grazed range did not vary dramatically from that of adjacent marsh from which livestock had been excluded (when allowance was made for differences between bulrush-dominated and sacahuista- dominated range). Proper degree of use for this range type apparently has not been studied as much--let alone scientifically determined-- as has that for interior tallgrass paririe. Species composition did not vary dramatically from that of adjacent Gulf cordgrass-dominated marsh from which livestock had been excluded. Duration (years, decades) of grazing at this heavy degree of use was not known. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. Range vegetation as to the biotic community classification of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

22. Close grazing on brackish to salt coastal marsh- Two photo-views of close or severe degree of use on a bulrush-sacahuista (= Gulf cordgrass)-seacoast bluestem-sedge marsh community. This was a relatively small (local size scale) wetland (mostly brackish marsh) with the surrounding rangeland (in background with cattle) at higher--ever so slightly--elevation being a bluestem-sacahuista coastal tallgrass prairie. Cattle had concentrated on the bulrush-dominated marsh to extent of selectively grazing these grasslike plants while largely avoiding the grasses, including seacoast bluestem as was evident by presence of a conspicuous wolf plant of seacoast bluestem in right foreground of the first slide. Nonetheless, species composition of bulrush-dominated range did not appear to differ much, if at all, between bulrush-dominated marsh from which cattle had been excluded. Duration (years) of close grazing along with other management practices on this marsh range was not known. Description of this range vegetation was presented in the caption under the two photographs of ungrazed Gulf Coast marsh vegetation that were conterminous to this severely cropped range. Binominals and a brief note on taxonomy of bulrush and related grasslike plants were provided in the immediately succeeding photo-caption. The local range plant community shown here had substantially greater quantities (based on apparent cover and density and estimated biomass) of bulrushes than of sacahuista compared to the moderately grazed range and heavily grazed range shown above. This was likely the reason that grazing (ie. degree of use; utilization) had been greater here. Gulf cordgrass is relatively low in palatability and, as just noted, even seacoast bluestem appeared to be less preferred than bulrush herbage. Proper degree of use for this range type apparently has not been studied as much--let alone scientifically determined-- as has that for interior tallgrass paririe. Species composition of this closely or severely grazed range did not vary dramatically from that of adjacent bulrush-dominated marsh from which livestock had been excluded, but again length of time (years, decades) under this degree of grazing use was unknown. Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. Range vegetation as to the biotic community classification of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

23. Brackish to saline coastal tule or bulrush marsh- View of extensive Gulf Coast marsh with the featured range community composed of California (also, giant) bulrush or tule (Scirpus californicus= Schoenoplectus californicus); Olney threesquare, chairmaker's club-rush, saltmarsh bulrush or Americn bulrush (Scirpus olneyi= S. americanus= Schoenoplectus americanus); and seaside bulrush, saltmarsh bulrush, or seaside club-rush (Scirpus robustus= Schoenoplectrus robustus= Bulboschoenus robustus), these three in increasing tolerance to salinity, respectively, along with common cattail as local dominants. Other important range species in this marsh vegetation included grasslike plants such as sedges, flatsedges, spikerushes, and even scattered stands of black needlerush as well as cordgrass (mostly Gulf cordgrass), seashore bluestem, big bluestem, switchgrass, and Indiangrass (Sorgastrum nutans), and bushy bluestem. Note of bulrush or tule taxonomy: recent changes in nomenclature (or, more specifically, nomenclatural changes) in the Cyperaceae have left this family in a state of upheavel and chaos--other than to those who made the changes--parallel with that of the Gramineae. While the "bible" of vascular plants in Texas remains the dated encyclopedia edited by Correll and Johnston (1979) new (at least, newer) taxonomic works include the on-going, ambitious endeavor of the Illustrated Texas Floras Project. Volume one of the Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al, 2006) followed the now-accepted (though by no means accepted by all taxonomists) treatment of the Monocotyledoneae which scattered the bulrushes, like a trail herd of Longhorn steers, "from Hell to breakfast". The new nomenclature (eg. Diggs et al., 2006) as well as the older taxonomy (eg. Correll and Johnston, 1979) was included here as shown by use of synonyms for the species binominals. The status of salt to brackish marsh like that shown here depends seasonally and periodically depending on variables like recent rainfall, inundation due to normal tides or hurricane storm surge, evaporation, and edaphic features. Humphrey Ranch, Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types.Biotic community unit of Brown (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, except that there should be a Bulrush Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

24. Transition brackish coastal marsh range- On the Coastal Plain along the Gulf of Mexico at a distance far enough inland that salinity is usually between salt and fresh marsh the range vegetation was transitory between marsh and sacahuista-bluestem coastal prairie. Green plants in foreground were primarily Gulf cordgrass (known also as sacahuista) which were joined by some marshhay cordgrass, and still less cover of Olney threesquare, chairmaker's club-rush, or Americn bulrush; seaside bulrush, saltmarsh bulrush, or seaside club-rush; and various Carex species. The range plant community in the background was coastal tallgrass prairie of seacoast bluestem, big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, bushy bluestem, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), various species of Paspalum such as brownseed paspalum (P. plicatulum), thinseed or fringeleaf paspalum (P. setaceum), longtom (P. lividum), and knotgrass (P. distichum) along with widespread, festucoid grass, Texas wintergrass or Texas speargrass (Stipa leucotricha). Numerous genera of grasslike plants were present at much lower quantites (cover, density) and included Carex, Cyperus, Eleocharis, Rhynchospora, Scirpus, and Fimbristylis. In distant background (the horizon) common reed, an arundinoid grass, formed vast colonies known as reedbeds (presented below). Forbs were almost absent as were woody plants. Thus this natural coastal herbaceous vegetation is a transition (ie. an ecotone) between marsh and tallgrass prairie. Humphrey Ranch, Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). Two distinct range dominance types with two possibilities for one of these. Foreground range plant community was marsh such that the type was SRM 726 (Cordgrass) and/or SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45): Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, except that there should be a Bulrush Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush. Background vegetation was coastal tallgrass prairie: SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

25. A little higher and drier- Superbly managed range of native Gulf Coast vegetation that was the bluestem-Gulf cordgrass (= sacahuista) cover type at the uppermost or inland-most edge of a brackish coastal marsh and a slightly higher elevation and less frequently flooded or indundated (by Gulf of Mexico) coastal prairie. Individuals of Gulf cordgrass were the large, green clumps or tufts in foreground of the first of these two slides. Bulk of the range vegetation seen here was that of bluestems (with seacoast bluestem of greatest importance followed by big bluestem and bushy bluestem); panicgrasses (especially switchgrass and beaked panicgrass); Paspalum species including brownseed paspalum (P. plicatulum), thinseed or fringeleaf paspalum (P. setaceum), longtom (P. lividum), and knotgrass (P. distichum); Texas wintergrass; Indiangrass; and amazingly few invaders such as threeawns (Aristida spp.) or even increasers like silver bluestem (Andropogon saccharoides= Bothriochloa saccharoides) and dropseeds (Sporobolus spp.) though some individuals of these grasses were present on this magnificant range. Grasslike plants were mostly species of Carex and Cyperus. Forbs and woody species were almost "scarce as hens' teeth". Humphrey Ranch, Jefferson County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

26. Fast change- Detailed view of the edge (short-distance ecotone) between a more frequently flooded (from saline water of Gulf of Mexico) brackish marsh and an ever-so-slightly higher coastal prairie. Two closer-in views of the same cattle range as shown in the two immedately preceding photographs. This range plant community was textbook example of the bluestem-sacahuista coastal tallgrass prairie the species composition of which was described immediately above. Large green clumps were sacahuista (Spanish name used for Gulf cordgrass). Major species was seacoast bluestem and typical tallgrass prairie dominants along with Texas wintergrass and numerous Paspalum species. Almost no forbs with a complete absence of shrubs or trees. This prairieman's paradise was at upper (both elevation and inland distance) edge of brackish marsh and onset of coastal tallgrass prairie. There were grasslike plant species, but these were primarily Carex and Cyperus species. Bulrushes, cattails, beaked-rushes (Rhynchospora), and true rushes such as black needlerush (Juncus roemerianus) were primarily confined to marshes and restricted to local habitats or microsites on coastal prairie. Humphrey Ranch, Jefferson County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

27. Sundown on a Gulf of Mexico coastal marsh- Landscape-scale view of a Gulf Coast marsh with various range plant communities dominated by 1) bulrushes and cattail (foreground), 2) Gulf cordgrass-marshhay cordgrass and bluestem (mid-ground to near background), and 3) common reed (distant background; horizon). Cordgrass (especially Gulf cordgrass or sacahuista)-bluestem coastal prairie and marsh-prairie transition was presented and described above. The bulrush-cattail subtype of Gulf Coast marsh was also treated above, but another example of this combination subtype was offered in the next two slides and their captions. Immediately thereafter reedbeds of common reed were given their due. McFadden National Wildlife Refuge, Jefferson County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). This Gulf Coast range was primarily coastal marsh with salinity varying seasonally or periodically. SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh) for foreground vegetation. The wet coastal prairie form of this range vegetation (midground to near foreground) was SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). By the classification system of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) the predominant marsh vegetation seen here was biotic community unit of Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, except that there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and of Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail.

28. Through the winter on the marsh- Two distinct stands of 1) common cattail (foremost plants; obviously dead and highly weathered coarse stalks) and 2) California or giant bulrush or, in West Coast lingo, California or giant tule (taller, still-green plants behind cattail). There were three major species of bulrush or tule in the overall marsh vegetation on this range: California or giant bulrush (or tule); Olney threesquare, chairmaker's club-rush, saltmarsh bulrush or Americn bulrush; and seaside bulrush, saltmarsh bulrush, or seaside club-rush, with these respective three species having increasing tolerance to salinity. The only species present in the marsh range vegetation showh here was California tule or bulrush. Common or broadleaf cattail is the most widely distributed Typha species in North America. It formed local to large-sized colonies that spread by extensive rhizomes on this portion of Gulf Coast marsh. Common cattail obviously was dormant with completely dead shoots whereas California bulrush had mostly still alive shoots. The mild maritime climate of the Gulf Coast permits some shoots of herbaceous plants to overwinter and persist as at least partially green leaves and or culms. This is the case for California tule and, to lesser degree, common reed (as shown below). McFadden National Wildlife Refuge, Jefferson County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh) and/or SRM 726 (Cordgrass): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types.. Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) classification units: Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3, there should be a Bulrush Series and a Cattail Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland for Bulrush and Cattail and Southeastern Interior Marshland for Cattail. Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Texas-Louisiana Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34g (Griffith et al., 2004).

29. Bulrush in winter- California or giant bulrush or, the more Western Range name, California or giant tule is the largest (tallest, most robust shoots) of three bulrush species in this part of the Gulf Coast marsh. It is also the least tolerant of salinity. A few shoot of common or broadleaf cattail (conspicuous by their large, broken, dry stalks) were scattered among this otherwise "solid" (single-species) stand of giant bulrush. McFadden National Wildlife Refuge, Jefferson County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh) and/or SRM 726 (Cordgrass): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types.. Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) classification unit would be Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3 except that there should be a Bulrush Series consistent with those of Northeastern Interior Marshland.

30. Reeds in the winter wind- Common reed (Phragmites communis= P. australis) forms dense, often immense, colonies via extensive systems of rhizomes. These exclusive stands (no other native herbaceous species can compete with this rank grass) are known as reedbeds. Grass shoots of this reedbed were mostly dead as this species becomes primarily dormant durning winter, even the mild winters of the maritime climate of this Gulf Coast marsh. A few shoots of common reed in this extensive colony were still alive. In other shoots only some of the phytomers (a phytomer is the basic unit of the shoot including internode, node, and leaf) were still living. Living (green) shoots scattered among the large, dead shoots (light-brown of amber-colored stalks with dry, tattered leaves) created a striking "pose" of this large, arundinoid grass. The extensiveness or immensity of coverage of reedbeds produced a unique visual effect to this horizon-to-horizon Gulf Coastal marsh. Common reed is has one of the largest geographic (species) ranges of any plant on Earth. In fact, Polunin (1960, p. 98) wrote that it "...is often claimed to be the most widely distributed vascular plant species in the world..." The species range of common reed is, however, a discontinuous range of the diffuse and homogenous type (Polunin, 1960, ps. 188, 192) with development of reedbeds on Earth's continents limited to similar marshes or riparian zones of slow-moving streams. Common reed has a remarkable capacity of dispersal due its different propagules and forms of dispersal: plumed, wind dispersed grains; buoyant water-dispersed rhizomes; and large, aggressive, self-dispersed stolons (Polunin (1960, p. 98). The current author hypothesized that it was likely--in fact, almost assured--that non-human animals spread disseminules of common reed (eg. waterfowl spreading grains attached to feathers and feet and perhaps parts of rhizome or stolon that served as forage for such migratory birds). Man has been a major diisseminating biological agent of common reed. On the McFadden National Wildlife Refuge, where these photographs were taken hunters contributed to spread of common reed by building blinds of reed stalks which after having been stuck in the muddy soil of the marsh formed new reedbeds. Refuge policy currently forbids such use of reeds for blind construction to prevent this unintentional establishment of reedbeds that threaten to exclude other native species like bulrushes which are more valuable sources of waterfowl feed. McFadden National Wildlife Refuge, Jefferson County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 806 (Gulf Coast Salt Marsh) and/or SRM 726 (Cordgrass): range vegetation shown here could fit equally well either or both of these rangeland cover types. Brown et al. (1998, p. 45) classification unit would be Gulf Coastal Maritime Marshland 243.3 except that there should be a Common Reed Series added. Polunin (1960, p. 505) described wetland plant communities comprised of common reed, bulrushes, cattails, sedges, and flat sedges as "reed-swamps". In accepted and more precise terms such natural vegetation is, strictly speaking, a marsh (wetland dominated by herbaceous plants) and not a swamp (wetland dominated by woody plants), but throughout the early, historic (the seminal) literature reedbeds and associated bulrush, cattail, and wet sedge vegetation were called "reed-swamps". This wetland vegetation was often described by early plant ecologist including F.E. Clements and Arthur Tansley. Such references and their importance in development of successional concepts was discussed in the review of literature elsewhere in this publication.

31. One, but a major one- Willow baccharis (Baccharis salicina= B. salicifolia= B. neglecta= B. angustifloia) has had a lot of specific epithets (hence, confusion and argument), but it is one of the few native shrubs that is a natural component of properly managed coastal marsh and prairie ranges. Willow baccharis is also a major woody invader on go-back land in the Gulf Coast landscape. In the late Nineteenth Century tens of thousands of acres of pristine coastal marsh and prairie were plowed under and converted to rice fiields. When many such rice fields were abandoned in the 1970s-1980s secondary plant succession on these old fields remained at seral stages commonly dominated by willow baccharis or this species along with southern wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera),broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), bushy beardgrass or bluestem (A. glomeratus), and numerous exotic weed and brush species. Successional status of willow baccharis on coastal marshes and prairies is a matter of commonness (density, cover, dominance, etc.). At small to trace amounts this is a desirable shrub. As a dominant on go-back ranges it is a noxious plant. Either way, willow baccharis is an indicator species. It was included in this treatment of coastal prairie and marsh because it is a member (albeit in trace amounts) of the climax range plant community. Willow baccharis prefers moist habitats (and is adapted to saline environments as well) and is most common near ponded soils or those with wet soils near the ground surface. It often thrives on sand dunes near the beach and at edges of larger inland lakes. The first of these two photographs showed several main shoots of mature willow baccharis with only a few persistent leaves lingering through the mild Gulf Coast winter. The second photograph was of a young (immature) willow baccharis produced by resprouting from a cut-off mature stump. These second-season (two growing season's worth of shoot regrowth) sprouts furnished a good example of shoot characteristics of this woody composite. These sprouts are coppice shoots (often known as stump sprouts or suckers) produced by the original shoot in response to the stimulus of defoliation when the main shoot was severed. This is an example of free growth and the coppice sprouting results in heterophyllus shoots (those that were not produced from fully preformed, over-wintering buds). Stump suckers are long shoots identified and designated by long internodes (internode elongation) and absence of a cluster of leaves at shoot apex, this latter of which is a feature of short shoots (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1979, ps. 65-71, 77). Jefferson County, Texas. February.

32. Branch of willow baccharis- Upper portions of stump sprouts of willow baccharis that were introduced in the preceding photograph. Stump sprouting of a cut adult willow baccharis resulted in a young plant that had retained its leaves through winter. This individual of Baccharis salicina was growing along the Gulf Coast near mouth of Sabine River. It provided an example of young shoots, complete with foliage, of one of the most common species of woody composite in the central to western Gulf Coast marshes and prairies region. Jefferson County, Texas. February.

33. Shoot details of Baccharis salicina- A normal or regular leader (woody shoot) of willow baccharis on an adult plant provided a good example of bark, branching pattern, and leaf features on one of the most common native composite shrubs in the prairies and marshes of the central and western Gulf Coast. A short, vertical shoot (right side in first slide; the featured subject of second slide) was shown to portray characteristic leaves. This vertical shoot originated from an established internode by developing from intercalary meristem, a phenomenon much more common following damage or death of the existing shoot (especially as from defoliation). Jefferson County, Texas. February.

34. Cordgrass salt flats of the Gulf coastal prairies- This pristine, verdant sward is a strikingly beautiful consociation of Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae). This climax grassland was one of the most extensive range communities in the virgin coastal prairies and marshes of the Atlantic Gulf, especially in Texas and Louisiana. It formed vast essentially single-species stands along the coastal salt flats and inland sites that are subject to flooding or intrusion of salt water. Gulf cordgrass is tolerant of submersion and can extend to beaches. The excellent range seen here is maintained by routine prescribed burning and proper grazing management. It is a picture- perfect example of perfect stewardship.   Ranch, San Patricio County, Texas. October. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem), K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie), SRM 726 or FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie), SRM 711 (Bluestem-Gulf Cordgrass Prairie): see explanation under next slide. There was not a Cordgrass Series presented in the Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3 by Brown et al., (1998). Case could be made that this would be Cordgrass Series 143.32 based on Brown et al., (1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Southern Subhumid Gulf Coastal Prairies Ecoregion, 34b (Griffith et al., 2004).         "The sight of a native turf, whether of shortgrass carpeting the Earth or tallgrass waving in the wind,  restores my soul."  (J. Frank Dobie).

35. Gulf cordgrass- This cespitose species forms large, sometimes massive, clumps that make travel in vehicles uncomfortable but which provides abundant and good to excellent forage when young. Communities dominated— often populated almost exclusively —by Gulf cordgrass furnished the feed for the earliest days of cattle ranching in Texas and Louisiana. Jordan (1981) proved that cattle ranching in Texas originated from Anglo Saxon roots in South Carolina and began along the Gulf Coast and NOT as traditionally taught in the Rio Grande Plains from horseback Hispanic ancestry. Gulf cordgrass "salt flat prairies" are relative scarce today, but the few that remain provide excellent natural pasture for large ruminants as well as being part of the coastal habitat for the endangered Atwater prairie chicken. O'’Conner Ranch, San Patricio County, Texas. October. FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands), K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie), SRM 726 or FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie), SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie). There are characteristics and components of both of these depending on if land is covered with standing water and/or soil saturated for long periods or if it has features more like those of drier upland prairie.Generally, the Beardgrass Series 143.31 in Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Southern Subhumid Gulf Coastal Prairies Ecoregion, 34b (Griffith et al., 2004).

36. Inflorescence of Gulf cordgrass-  O'Connor Ranch, San Patricio County, Texas. October.

37. Sachuista [Gulf cordgrass] subtype of bluestem-sacahuista prairie- A consociation of Gulf cordgrass in the more inland portion of Texas Coastal Prairies and Marshes vegetational area represented this form of coastal tallgrass prairie. Sacahuista or sacahuiste in the instance or context is another common name for Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae). This has long been (and remains) a most confusing situation because sacahuista is also applied as a common name for species of Nolina, especially N. texana and N. microcarpa, which also have another common name of beargrass. This further confuses the situation as beargrass is the preferred common name for showy mountain forbs of the genus Xerophyllum. Nolina and Xerophyllum are both in the Liliaceae although some authorities have retained Nolina in the Agavaceae (= Agavoideae subfamily of Liliaceae). Sacahuista is an Anglization of the Spanish zacahuiscle which refers to grass, grasslike, or hay. In common usage sacahuista connotes large tufts or bunches of grass or grass-appearing plants such that the word is applied in Texas to both S. spartinae and N. texana and N. microcarpa, and, less commonly, to other Nolina species.Confusion has been minimized by referring to S. spartinae as sacahuista grass or coastal sacahuista or, of course, Gulf cordgrass though this latter usage eliminates the Spanish-derived name in an area where Spanish names are often preferred even by Anglos. Sacahuista stands like this one consisting almost exclusively of a single species resemble monocultures of field crops and could be interpreted more as populations than communities. The other conspicuous feature of Gulf cordgrass grassland is the "evergreen" aspect. Sacahuiste prairie in the coastal sand country stays green much of the year as shown by this photograph taken in mid-February. Otherwise forage nutritive value of Gulf cordgrass is relatively low, but herbage yield is high with the large size and productivity of this species. Kenedy County, Texas. February, but more of a vernal aspect. This range was inland and mesophytic enough to be interpreted as FRES No.39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem), K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie, SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Brown et al.(1998, p.40). Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004).

38. Bluestem-sacahuista prairie- Another view of the same coastal sand plain range as in the immediately preceding slide but with more species diversity. Bushy bluestem or bushy beardgrass, the dormant and tan-colored shoots in right-center foreground, and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), large clumps of dormant and tan- or light brown-colored grass in left center foreground, joined Gulf cordgrass on this more mesic microsite. Differences between dormancy and active growth were dramatic, but all these grasses are regardd as warm-season species. Kenedy County, Texas. February, but vernal aspect for sacahuiste. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahhuiste [Gulf Cordgrass] Prairie. SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie).Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series (no Cordgrass Series given) 143.31 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004).

39. General view of Gulf coastal prairie- Mosaic of range vegetation typical of much of the original coastal tallgrass prairie along the Gulf of Mexico. A homogenous zone of seashore saltgrass (Distichlis spicata= D. spicata var. spicata) and Gulf dune paspalum (Paspalum monostachylum) grew in the lower part of the land surface (visible across entire foreground) while a consociation of Gulf cordgrass had developed behind this surface depression. Gulf cordgrass is also known as sacahuista so this form of Gulf of Mexico tallgrass coastal prairie is called sacahuista prairie. Neither seashore saltgrass or Gulf dune paspalum extended beyond edges of the sachuista community. A motte of live oak (Quercus virginiana), honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), and huisache (Acacia farnesiaan= A. smallii) was in far background. Virgin gulf prairie in Excellent range condition class. This pristine tallgrass prairie vegetation was an outstanding example of physiogonomy and structure of this rangeland cover type. It was indicative of the tremendous productivity of this range ecosystem. Brooks County, Texas. October, peak standing crop and inflorescence-emergence phenological stage. This range vegetation was an island of gulf sachuista prairie in the Rio Grande Plains vegetational area. This location was subject to periodic flooding and soil was saline to favor seashore saltgrass. Most precisely this range vegetation should be regarded as FRES No. 41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series (there was not a Cordgrass Series) 143.31 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004). [Note that for this range vegetation the Texas ecoregion designation was more apt than the traditional Texas vegetational area.]

40. Sacahuista prairie- Gulf cordgrass (known also as sacahuista) type of tallgrass prairie. This consociation of gulf cordgrass was as close to a single-species ("pure") stand as if it had been a seeded field. About the only other plant species that grew within the great clumps of gulf cordgrass was wooly croton or hogwort (Croton capitatus var lindheimeri). In spaces between the sacahuista clumps (ie. depressions in land surface) seashore saltgrass and gulf dune paspalum formed another local or micro-community. This was a good example of micro-habitat or micro-environment. Mottes of live oak, mesquite, and huisache were in far background. Brooks County, Texas. October, peak standing crop, early to mid-bloom stage. FRES No. 31 Wet Grasslands Ecosystem). K-50 (Southern Crodgrass Prairie). SRM 726 (Cordgrass). Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3, Beardgrass Series (no Cordgrass Series presented) 143.31 of (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plain-Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004).

41. Gulf cordgrass or sacahuista (Spartina spartinae)- These plants were growing on the sacahuista type of tallgrass parairie shown in the two immediately Preceeding slides. Brooks County, Texas. October, peak standing crop.

42. Spikelets of gulf cordgrass- Portion of gulf cordgrass showing maturing spikelets. Brooks County, Texas. October.

43. Gulf dune paspalum (Paspalum monostachrum)- Gulf dune paspalum is one of numerous Paspalum species indigenous to the Coastal Prairies and Marshes and Rio Grande Plains vegetational areas of Texas. It is strongly rhizomatous and one of the more common climax grasses on coastal and inland sand dunes though less common in locations subject to salt-spray. It Besides the native Paspalum species several other paspalums have been introduced into the southern states. Some of these introduced species were discussed in the grassland chapter, Introdued Forages. These plants were growing on the sacahuista or gulf cordgrass prairie presented above. Brooks County, Texas. October, mid-maturity phenological stage.

44. Inflorescences of gulf dune paspalum- Closer-in view of inflorescences of the small colony of gulf dune paspalum shown immediately above. This species typically has one or two spicate branches in its panicle inflorescence.Like most Paspalum spikelets are usually arranged in dense rows on one side of the inflorescence branches. Brooks County, Texas. October, mid-maturity stage.

45. Wooly croton (Croton capitatus var. lindheimeri)- Individuals of this species were widely distributed but not plentiful within the large clumps of gulf cordgrass on the sacahuista tallgrass coastal prairie discussed previously. Brooks County, Texas. October, early bloom stage of phenology.

46. Sacahuista [Gulf cordgrass] prairie-motte of liveoak (probably more likely Quercus fusiformis= Q. virginiana var. fusiformis than Q. virginiana)- Mottes (Texan for grove or thicket) made up of various woody species developed within the overall bluestem-sacahuista prairie in much of the coastal sand plain of Texas. Shrub and tree species of such mottes include honey mesquite, granjeno or spiny hackberry (Celtis pallida), huisache (Acacia farnesiana), and lime pricklyash or colima (Zanthoxylum fagara) among several others, but liveoak is typically the most common and defining species. Norias Division, King Ranch, Kenedy County, Texas. February, late hibernal or early vernal aspect. Range vegetation seen here could be interpreted as a patch of K-55 (Mesquite-Live Oak Savanna) in a matrix of K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie), or perhaps vice versa, if viewed from perspective of Landscape Ecology. Alternatively it could be viewed simply as an example of a generalized K-55 and the general SRM 719 (Mesquite-Liveoak-Seacoast Bluestem) rangeland cover type. Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004). Liveoak mottes and the liveoak range type was covered in this publication under Shrublands- Rio Grande Plains. The example presented here was included in the coastal tallgrass prairie chapter merely to show closeness and interaction of these range cover types and to prevent or, at least, reduce reader confusion (ie. to provide some continuity in envisioning the range vegetation of this region).

47. Seacoast bluestem sandhills range- The subtype or form of Gulf coastal tallgrass prairie that is dominated by seacoast bluestem, often, as in this example, a consociation of this species. This is generally accepted to be the more common form or expression of the Gulf coastal prairie. This author has observed that the seacoast bluestem subtype is more commonly bursh-infested than is the sacahuista [Gulf cordgrass] subtype. This could reflect the more widespread distribution of the seacoast bluestem subtype. Physiographic features of the sandhills topographic type of the western Gulf coastal sands region were prominent in this photograph. Well-traveled viewers may have noted the similarity of these sandhills to those of the more widespread Nebraska Sandhills. (This comparison can be made herein by comparison of this landscape to that of tallgrass prairie in northcentral Nebraska portrayed in the chapter on interior tallgrass prairie.) Instructive in this regard was the mapping of soils in this area and that of a majority of the Nebraska Sandhills as Sands (Dry), Vallentine-Nueces Dune association in the general soils map of the United States according to the soil classification system of 1938 (United States Department of Agriculture, 1938). Kenedy County, Texas. February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste Prairie). SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Gulf Coastal Grassland Biotic Community 143.3 (Brown et al., 1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Coastal Sand Plain Ecoregion 34d (Griffith et al., 2004).

48. Seacoast bluestem range- An arch-typical example of gulf coastal tallgrass prairie. Range vegetation shown in this photograph was (or, at least, approached) that of the regional climax plant community. Decades ago rangemen in North America accepted the vegetational concepts of either polyclimax of Tansley or the similar climax pattern theory of Whittaker hereby largely rejecting the monoclimax theory -- in pure form anyway-- of Clements. For instructional or intuitive purposes the student of range vegetation could revert to the monoclimax view and envision a region of land going through the geologic cycle theorized by William Morris Davis and weathering down to a peneplain with one climatic (= regional or zonal) climax vegetation. The regional or climatic climax of the Gulf of Mexico coastal prairie would be quite similar to the virgin upland seacoast bluestem on the small range landscape preented here. Dominant species of this sandy upland range was seacoast bluestem with considerable Florida paspalum (Paspalum florida) and various dropseeds. Conspicuous forb was Texas croton (Croton texensis). Willacy County, Texas. October. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-69 (Bluestem-Sacahuiste Prairie). SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie). Beardgrass Series 143.31 of Gulf Coastal Grasslamd Biotic Community 143.3 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 40). Western Gulf Coastal Plain- Lower Rio Grande Valley Ecoregion 34e (Griffith et al., 2004).

49. Sea oats-seacoast bluestem coastal prairie- An interrupted narrow strip of tallgrass prairie, a dry prairie (versus wet prairie and marsh), sporadically lines the Gulf Coast. This unique form of the vast tallgrass-dominated grassland in the heart of North America is the coastal terminus of a belt of humid climate-derived prairie that once extended southward from Manitoba to the Gulf. Some of the same dominant panicoid species extended throughout the latitude of this vast (once vast; now largely plowed or paved over) grassland. One of the most consistent of these species was little bluestem and its closely related taxa (both ecotypes and taxonomic varieties that have often been interpreted as separate species). The Gulf Coast "version" of little bulestem which is the dominant species of the coastal tallgrass prairie is sea coast bluestem (Andropogon littoralis, to most early day American agrostologists like Hitchcock, and Schizachyrium scoparium var. littoralis to recent authorities like Gould). The distinguishing species of this unique form of bluestem prairie (ie. the key ecological species giving this vegetation it's distinctive quality, and it's designation) is sea oats (Uniola paniculata). The Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) designated and described this rangeland cover type as the sea oats prairie. Sea oats were shown here in full-flower on low blow-out sand dunes that were stabilized by the roots and rhizomes of this eragrostoid grass. The spikelets of sea oats are probably the most laterally compressed of any North American grass and their beauty in the massive inflorescences provides as distinctive a quality as the picturesque grassland itself. The view here is westward toward the mainland from this barrier island. Immediately behind this stand of sea oats is a wind-tidal flat formed by the combination of high heat, relatively constant temperature, persistent winds carrying salt particles, and saline soils. Wind-tidal and -deflation flats, deflation troughs, dunes of several kinds (eg. coppice, barchan, transverse, blow-out) and other miscellaneous local landforms create a patchwork of plant communities which are various seral stages in plant succession that probably terminates in a seacoast bluestem-sea oats climax.. Students of Plant Ecology should recall that many of the pioneering studies of plant succession in both America and Europe were done on sand dunes, the most famous of which was that of H.C. Cowles from which F.E.Clements took his grand model of "dynamic vegetation". In the far background is an interdunal area dominated by seacoast bluestem as shown in detail in the succeeding slide. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Hibernal aspect, February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). Mapped by Kuchler as K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) which indicated that it was part of FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem). But, as was the case for several North American range types, Kuchler mapping scale was too coarse (large or general) to include the narrow belt of dry prairie dominated by seacoast bluestem and sea oats within the more general coastal marsh and wet prairie zone. More precisely this is an outlier of K-66 or K-69 (a form of Bluestem Prairie). SRM 723 (Sea Oats). Part of the overly broad Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

50. Seacoast bluestem-sea oats prairie- This community most likely represents the potential natural terminal vegetation of the barrier islands and high dune zone of mainland beaches. Seen here is the stabilized blow-out dune zone which is the interior grassland of the barrier island. Foredunes just beyond the swash zone of the beach and wind-deflation flats and back-island dunes behind the flats (mainland-ward) act as borders and barriers to this seacoast bluestem-sea oats climax grassland. The sea oats prairie, as it has been referred to (eg. Shiflet, 1994) based on the distinctiveness and specificity of this sand-binding rhizomatous grass, is found most consistently on the North American barrier islands such as Padre and Mustang Islands along the Texas coast. Vegetation of these barrier islands is complex and occurs as zones, the community compositions of which are determined by distance from the beach and strand (moving inland) or from the mainland (moving seaward or toward the coast). This example was found on north Padre Island with the extremely salty Laguna Madre and its back-island dunes behind these stabilized blow-out dunes. These dunes were populated primarily by the two dominant species with sea oats dominant on dune crests and seacoast bluestem dominant lower on the dune faces and the ground among adjacent dunes. Within the overall seacoast bluestem-sea oats prairie there are numerous local sites (and even microsites) such as small fresh water or brackish marshes, blowouts, and deflation flats. All of these are various seral stages in the xerosere of the island with the stabilized sand dune and interdunal flats comprising the local climax grassland vegetation of which the dominants are typically sea coast bluestem and sea oats with such associate grasses as gulfdune paspalum (Paspalum monostachyum), bitter panicgrass (Panicum amarum), and, locally, big bluestem. Prominent forbs include whitestem wild indigo (Baptisia laevicaulis), largeleaf pennywort (Hydrocotyle bonariensis), and morningglory species (eg. Ipomoea stolonifera). All examples of vegetation presented in the following slides are of this general climax community. The relatively flat (at least less choppy) land surface seen here in the foreground was largely a stand of seacoast bluestem with whitestem wild indigo the apparent associate species. Bitter panicgrass was also commonly interspersed around clumps of the cespitose bluestem. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Hibernal aspect, February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). Mapped by Kuchler as K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) which indicated it was part of FRES No. 41 (Wet Grassland Ecosystem), but, as was found for several North American range types, Kuchler mapping scale was too large or too general to include the narrow belt of dry prairie dominated by seacoast bluestem and sea oats within the more general coastal marsh and wet prairie zone. More precisely this is an "island" of K-66 or K-69 (a form of Bluestem Prairie). SRM 723 (Sea Oats). Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains-Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

51. Stabilized blow-out dune in climax grassland- Here in the interior of Padre Island, seacoast bluestem was the local dominant (with sea oats the associate species) atop a blow-out dune. With a slight shift in wind direction or with extended periods of higher wind speeds dune tops develop small blowouts which are covered by sea oats. Sea oats also quickly populate some of the more recent sand dunes and function as both a pioneer and a climax species (at least at local scale). The bare branches of the shrub extending above the dune in the center are of the deciduous black willow (Salix nigra). Sand dunes on the barrier islands frequently have persistently wet or moist layers of sand below the land surface that enables hydrophytes such as willow to persist in an otherwise xeric environment. Also, sand usually has high infiltration rates allowing dunes to absorb relatively large amounts of water in this sub-humid to humid precipitation zone. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Hibernal aspect, February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 or K-69 (a form of Bluestem Prairie): map units explained with two preceeding photographs. SRM 723 (Sea Oats). Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

52. Sea oats stabilizing sand dunes- This small dunes (and those barely visible in the background) were on a recent deflation plain where they were invaded by sea oats. This was an example of conditions and sites on which a climax species can also function as a colonizing species, at least locally when propagules are in close proximity to disturbance. The key role(s) of sea oats are what distinguish this as the sea oats prairie. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. February. At local area scale this is a unique form of FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem), K-66 or K-69. SRM 723 (Sea Oats). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

53. Big bluestem on the sea oats-seacoast bluestem prairie- That the prairies and marshes of the Gulf Coast are the southern extremity of the general tallgrass prairie vegetational region, Kuchler's Bluestem (Andropogon, Panicum, Sorgastrum) Prairie, is illustrated by local dominance of big bluestem on a microsite in the tallgrass variant form referred to as sea oats prairie. This grassland developed on a barrier flat which is a more-or-less level area of land on a barrier island that formed between the foredunes and the back-island dunes. Barrier flats usually originated as wind-deflation flats. The deflation flats formed when wind erosion removed loose materials like sand. Generally, the wind erodes sand and/or earth down to the levels at which moisture from the surface water table holds the sand in place, the particles remaining being either too heavy or bound to each other to be picked up. The eroded materials are re-deposited as dunes which are drier than the moist sand remaining (un-eroded) just above the ground water level. Wind not only moves geologic materials directly but also indirectly as wind-driven tides which can come from both the sea (eg. the Gulf) and from any bodies of water situated between the barrier island and the mainland (eg. the Laguna Madre to the west, the mainland-side, of Padre Island). When the wind-driven tides from saline lagoons (eg. Laguna Madre) flood lower portions of islands this salty water carries away suspended soil and parent materials like sand (ie. water erosion). It also floods these low sites with water several times saltier than ocean water. These processes are the basis of the dynamic nature of dune landscapes such as often found on lake shores and barrier islands. Barier flats and local topographic variations within them often are more favorable for plant production. This portion populated by big bluestem may have been a more fertile or, as is generally the case for wind-deflation flats,a more mesic microsite. The size, habit, and physiogonomy of the big bluestem stand attest to the affinity of the general sea oats-seacoast or little bluestem prairie as a part of the tallgrass prairie. From the standpoint of plant succession the vegetation on these flat portions of barrier islands are the equivalent of the regional climax with the barrier flat being the peneplain in the geologic cycle perspective of William Morris Davis that was the basis of the Clementsian monoclimax theory. The occurrence of big bluestem as a local dominant and seacoast bluestem as overall dominant is evidence for the affiliation of this relatively restricted range type with the general bluestem prairie that extended over so much of the latitude of central North America. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. hibernal aspect, February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 or K-69 (one form of the Bluestem Prairie). SRM 723 (Sea Oats). Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecosystem, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

54. Composite view of the seacoast bluestem-sea oats prairie- This vegetated barrier flat supported a diverse plant community which served as a general model in minature of the coastal prairie and marsh portion of the tallgrass (= bluestem) prairie. The nature of a barrier flat in the interior of a barrier island and the general geologic processes forming barrier flats was presented under the immediately preceding slide. As explained above, barrier flats begin as wind-deflation flats (= wind-deflation troughs). Within the general wind-deflation trough or flat (which in time becomes a vegetated barrier flat) there are lower areas running across (crossways or perpendicular to) the general or whole barrier flat that extends roughly from the foredunes to the back-island dunes. These deeper but narrower wind-deflation troughs occur within the general deflation trough extending to various distances across it thereby creating a micro-relief that can be pictured as a washboard or corrogated sheet metal. These deeper wind-deflation flats ("mini-flats") formed during droughts or periods when the sand was drier than that for the average of the entire time sequence over which the whole, the overall, deflation flat formed. As the sand was drier for a greater depth in the soil profile the wind could erode away more of the profile (ie. "deeper down"). Over time the result was a micro-topography of troughs within the overall or general trough (ie. much like a washboarded road). When rainfall returned to the average for that of the entire chronological sequence under which the general or entire wind-deflation flat (and, ultimately, the barrier flat) formed the deeper "trenches" (ie. the narrower wind-deflation troughs) filled up with water. During periods of average or above average precipitation the ground water table is closer to the land surface of the barrier flat such that water rises to the surface in the deeper but narrower troughs. This creates local areas of sub-irrigated prairies, fresh water marshes, or small, often ephemeral, lakes within the extent of the overall barrier flat (the vegetated land located between the dunes at the seaward and mainland edges of the barrier island). Such conditions existed on the heavily vegetated barrier flat shown in this slide. A fresh water lake formed by ground water rising to the surface of one of the deeper, drought-induced, small wind-deflation troughs in the base floor of a wind-deflation-derived basal flat (far horizon). Subirrigation was the edaphic penomenon responsible for the wet (at least ephemerically wet) prairie or, perhaps, the marsh community in the foreground of this landscape. The round, conspicuously green leaves are marsh or largeleaf pennywort (Hydrocotyle bonariensis), an indicator species of very mesic to hydric soil conditions. Sandwiched between the lake and its adjacaent marsh and the wet prairie is the predominant mesic edaphic habitat supporting bluestem prairie the dominant of which was seacoast bluestem. The combination of natural fresh water lakes and abundant forage from tallgrass prairie and marsh made the landscape of this barrier island ideal habitat for numerous species of wildlife from waterfowl to white-tailed deer. With coming of the white man it served as the natural resource base for ranching empires. Research into the cattle-ranching frontier revealed unequivocally that the roots of this industry were in the soil of the coastal prairies and marshes area. (See for eg. Jordan, 1993). The barrier flats of such barrier islands as Padre Island served as critical cattle range for several ranching empires, including for a brief period King Ranch. Students can get a good introduction to the geology, ecology, and human history of barrier islands from the Padre Island guide book by Weise and Shite (1980) from which much of the above explanation was extracted. Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Hibernal aspect, February. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-66 or K-69 (one variant of Bluestem Prairie). Inherent problems with large-scale mapping units such as the Kuchler units of potential vegetation were discussed with the first two slides that introduced this rangeland cover type (SRM 723, Sea Oats). Beardgrass Series of Brown et al. (1998). Western Gulf Coastal Plains- Laguna Madre Barrier Islands and Coastal Marshes Ecoregion, 34i (Griffith et al., 2004).

The following series of photographs showed range vegetation and plant species on South Padre Island near the southern terminus of Padre Island, the longest barrier island on Earth. At this location the cross section of Padre Island is relatively narrow so that topographic zones from seashore to back island dunes and Laguna Madre are comparatively close together (ie. the extent or distance of island crosss section is short so that the different topographical areas are compressed). The following treatment of range vegetation on South Padre Island followed the classic study by Judd et al. (1977) in which this part of the barrier island was divided into five longitudinal topographic zones (Judd et al., 1977, ps. 31, 33, 46, and Figure 2, p. 35). Topographic zones were: 1) foreshore, 2) backshore, 3) primary dunes, 4) secondary dunes and vegetated flats, and 5) tidal flats. In addition to these five the present author recognized the foredune portion of primary dunes. This topographic sequence was reasonably consistent with the greater detail of island morphology and glossary given by Weise and White (1980). Terms used by these latter authors differed from that used by Judd et al. (1977), but most terms seemed to be synonymous as for example: 1) forebeach (= foreshore), 2) backbeach (= backshore), and 3) foredune and foredune ridge (= primary dunes). The term tidal flat was used by both groups, but the equivalent of secondary dunes by Judd et al. (1977) could not be found in Weise and White (1980). The topographic sequence was to considerable degree a toposequence (vs. chronosequence) of primary plant succession (Barbour et al., 1999, p. 274-276).

55. Waves over the foreshore (= forebeach)- Waves from Gulf of Mexico washing over the foreshore, the landward (= inland) limit of which is the inner swaqsh zone. South Padre Island, Cameron County, Texas. October.

56. Foreshore- The outermost (seaside-most) edge of the forebeach over which waves from the Gulf of Mexico wash. Such waves leave varying waterlines inland-ward as the extent or limit of wave action varies with changes in the reaches of tides or storm surges from events like hurricanes. The inner layer of the swash zone or foreshore is the debris line which is clearly marked by wavy lines of shells, seaweed, dead fish, etc. that corresponded to farthest inland reach of waves. Immediately behind (inland from) the forebeach (adjacaent to and inland from the debris line) is the backbeach (= backshore). The backbeach begins immediately inland from the debris line and extends to the foredunes (= primary dunes). South Padre Isalnd, Cameron County, Texas. October.